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[[File:MEK II-371.jpg|thumb|Mechanical desktop typewriters, such as this [[Underwood Typewriter Company|Underwood Typewriter]], were long-time standards in government agencies, newsrooms, and offices.]]
[[File:Adler Wikipedia.ogv|thumb|A typewriter being used to type "Wikipedia".]]
A '''typewriter''' is a [[machine|mechanical]] or [[electromechanical]] machine for [[typing]] characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of [[Button (control)|keys]], and each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a [[Sort (typesetting)|type element]]. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term 'typewriter' was also applied to a ''person'' who used such a device.<ref>{{cite OED2|typewriter (2)|volume=18|page=789}}</ref>
The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874,<ref>{{Cite book |first=James W. |last=Cortada |title=Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 1865–1956 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4008-7276-3 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |archive-date=2018-06-26 |url-status=live}}</ref> but did not become common in offices in the [[United States]] until after the mid-1880s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Typewriters |url=https://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227181833/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |archive-date=December 27, 2016 |website=www.officemuseum.com}}</ref> The typewriter quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by professional writers, in offices, in business correspondence in private homes, and by students preparing written assignments.
Typewriters were a standard fixture in most offices up to the 1980s. After that, they began to be largely supplanted by personal computers running [[word processing]] software. Nevertheless, typewriters remain common in some parts of the world. For example, typewriters are still used in many Indian cities and towns, especially in roadside and legal offices, due to a lack of continuous, reliable electricity.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Typewriters, Writing a Social History of Urban India |publisher=The Wire |url=https://thewire.in/books/with-great-truth-and-regards-typewriter |access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref>
The [[QWERTY]] [[keyboard layout]], developed for typewriters in the 1870s, remains the [[de facto standard]] for English-language [[computer keyboards]]. The origins of this layout still need to be clarified.<ref name="Smithsonian"/> Similar typewriter keyboards, with layouts optimised for other languages and orthographies, emerged soon afterward, and their layouts have also become standard for computer keyboards in their respective markets.
== History ==
[[File:1864 Schreibmaschine Peter Mitterhofer.jpg|thumb|Peter Mitterhofer's typewriter prototype (1864)]]
Although many modern typewriters have one of several similar designs, their invention was incremental, developed by numerous inventors working independently or in competition with each other over a series of decades. As with the [[automobile]], the telephone, and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], several people contributed insights and inventions that eventually resulted in ever more commercially successful instruments. Historians have estimated that some form of the typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a workable design.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Acocella |first=Joan |date=April 9, 2007 |title=The Typing Life: How writers used to write |url=https://newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=1 |url-status=live |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011413/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=1 |archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref>
Some early typing instruments include:
* In 1575, an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazetto, invented the {{lang|it|scrittura tattile}}, a machine to impress letters in papers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scrittura | publisher=Museo dinamico della tecnologia Adriano Olivetti |url=http://museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org/scrittura/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621081930/http://museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org/scrittura/ |archive-date=2017-06-21 |access-date=2017-07-21 |website=museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org |language=it-IT}}</ref>
* In 1714, [[Henry Mill]] obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. The patent shows that this machine was created: "[he] hath by his great study and paines & expence invented and brought to perfection an artificial machine or method for impressing or transcribing of letters, one after another, as in writing, whereby all writing whatsoever may be engrossed in paper or parchment so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print; that the said machine or method may be of great use in settlements and public records, the impression being deeper and more lasting than any other writing, and not to be erased or counterfeited without manifest discovery."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Henry Mill Patents |url=http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill_Henry/MillHenryPatents.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121128013806/http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill_Henry/MillHenryPatents.htm |archive-date=2012-11-28 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Todayinsci.com}}</ref>
* In 1802, Italian Agostino Fantoni developed a particular typewriter to enable his [[blindness|blind]] sister to write.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, The bases of digital computers, typewriter and computer keyboard |url=http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/keyboard.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905195941/http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/keyboard.html |archive-date=2016-09-05 |access-date=2016-09-19 |website=history-computer.com}}</ref>
* Between 1801 and 1808, Italian [[Pellegrino Turri]] invented a typewriter for his blind friend Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Italian Inventors and their Inventions |url=http://www.yourguidetoitaly.com/italian-inventors.html |access-date=2011-01-25 |publisher=YourGuideToItaly.com}}</ref>
* In 1823, Italian Pietro Conti da Cilavegna invented a new model of the typewriter, the {{lang|it|tachigrafo}}, also known as {{lang|it|tachitipo}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gianfrancesco Rambelli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om_KVDRCK8EC&pg=PA150 |title=Intorno invenzioni e scoperte italiane |date=1844 |publisher=Tipografia Vincenzi e Rossi |location=Modena |page=150 |language=it}}</ref>
* In 1829, American [[William Austin Burt]] patented a machine called the "[[Typographer (typewriter)|Typographer]]" which, in common with many other early machines, is listed as the "first typewriter". The London [[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]] describes it merely as "the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented", but even that claim may be excessive since Turri's invention pre-dates it.<ref>{{Cite book |title=William Austin Burt's Typographer |publisher=Science Museum |year=1829}}</ref>
By the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need to mechanize the writing process. [[Stenographer]]s and [[telegraph]]ers could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, whereas a writer with a pen was limited to a maximum of 30 words per minute (the 1853 speed record).<ref name="Utterback">{{Cite book |last=Utterback |first=James M. Utterback |title=Mastering The Dynamics Of Innovation|edition=2nd|publisher=Harvard Business Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-87584-740-5}}</ref>
[[Image:Olivetti-Valentine.jpg|thumb|The 1969 [[Olivetti Valentine]] typewriter, featured in the permanent collections of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[Museum of Modern Art]], and [[Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum]] in New York;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ettore Sottsass, Perry King. Valentine Portable Typewriter. 1968 |url=https://www.moma.org/collection/works/4576 |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=The Museum of Modern Art}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Valentine, Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum |url=https://www.si.edu/es/object/valentine%3Achndm_1986-99-40-a_b |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=Smithsonian Institution}}</ref> London's [[Design Museum]] and [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title= ETTORE SOTTSASS |date= 19 May 2016 |url=https://designmuseum.org/designers/ettore-sottsass |publisher=[[Design Museum]], London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Valentine |url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O146042/valentine-typewriter-sottsass-ettore/ |publisher=[[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |date=February 25, 2008}}</ref>]]
[[File:Collections in Motion- Valentine Typewriter.webm|thumb|Video the [[Olivetti Valentine|Olivetti ''Valentine'']] typewriter in use.]]
From 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Typewriters |url=https://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |website=Early Office Museum |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
* American [[Charles Thurber (inventor)|Charles Thurber]] developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was created as an aid to blind people, such as the 1845 [[Charles Thurber (inventor)#Career|Chirographer]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thurber's Chirographer – Scientific American |url=https://todayinsci.com/Events/Typewriter/Chirographer-SciAm.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327043255/http://todayinsci.com/Events/Typewriter/Chirographer-SciAm.htm |archive-date=2015-03-27 |access-date=2017-01-20 |website=todayinsci.com}}</ref>
* In 1855, the Italian [[Giuseppe Ravizza]] created a prototype typewriter called ''Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti'' ("Scribe [[harpsichord]], or machine for writing with keys"). It was an advanced machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cembalo Scrivano – macchina per scrivere – Industria, manifattura, artigianato |url=https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/scienza-tecnologia/schede/ST120-00001/ |website=Lombardia Beni Culturali |access-date=27 April 2022 |language=IT}}</ref>
* In 1861, Father Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood and knives. In that same year, the Brazilian emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil|D. Pedro II]], presented a gold medal to Father Azevedo for this invention. Many Brazilian people, as well as the Brazilian federal government recognize Fr. Azevedo as the inventor of the typewriter, a claim that has been the subject of some controversy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Michael |title=Antique typewriters: from Creed to QWERTY |publisher=Schiffer Pub. |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7643-0132-2 |location=Atglen, Pa.}}</ref>
* In 1865, [[John Jonathon Pratt]], of [[Centre, Alabama]] (US), built a machine called the ''Pterotype'' which appeared in an 1867 ''[[Scientific American]]'' article<ref>{{Cite news |date=1867-07-06 |title=Type Writing Machine. |volume=17 |page=3 |work=[[Scientific American]] |issue=1 |location=New York |url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=%2Fmoa%2Fscia%2Fscia1017%2F&tif=00011.TIF&cite=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DABF2204-1017-3 |access-date=2009-01-14 |series=New}}</ref> and inspired other inventors.
* Between 1864 and 1867, {{Interlanguage link|Peter Mitterhofer|de}}, a carpenter from [[South Tyrol]] (then part of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]]) developed several models and a fully functioning prototype typewriter in 1867.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wN4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA751 |title=This is How Some of the World's Familiar Inventions Looked at the Time of Birth |magazine=Popular Mechanics |date=May 1929 |page=751}}</ref>
*By 1900, notable typewriter manufacturers included [[E. Remington and Sons]], [[IBM]], [[Godrej Group|Godrej]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=The archives times – March – April 2013 – Lost and found, a 1984 photo revives those times |publisher=Godrej archives |url=http://www.archives.godrej.com/assets/pdf/The_Archives_Times_Mar_Apr_2013.pdf |access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref> [[Imperial Typewriter Company]], [[Oliver Typewriter Company]], [[Olivetti]], [[Royal Typewriter Company]], [[Smith Corona]], [[Underwood Typewriter Company]], [[Facit]], [[Adler (cars and motorcycle)|Adler]], and <!--{{Ill|de|Olympia Werke}}-->[[Olympia-Werke]].<ref>Silver Reed{{Cite web |title=From behind the scenes – Godrej Prima and the Stenographers handbook |url=http://www.archives.godrej.com/assets/pdf/Steno's_Handbook.pdf |access-date=18 March 2019 |website=www.archives.godrej.com |publisher=Godrej archives}}</ref>
After the market had matured under the market dominance of large companies from Britain, Europe and the United States — but before the advent of daisywheel and electonic machines — the typewriter market faced strong competition from less expensive typewriters from Asia, including [[Brother Industries]] and [[Silver Seiko Ltd.]] of Japan.
[[File:TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG|alt=|thumb|An Elliott-Fisher book typewriter on display at the [[Historic Archive and Museum of Mining]] in [[Pachuca]], Mexico]]
=== Hansen Writing Ball ===
{{Main|Hansen Writing Ball}}
[[File:Malling Hansen,1867, Dänemark.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Hansen Writing Ball]] was the first typewriter manufactured commercially (1870)]]
In 1865, Rev. [[Rasmus Malling-Hansen]] of [[Denmark]] invented the [[Hansen Writing Ball]], which went into commercial production in 1870 and was the first commercially sold typewriter. It was a success in Europe and was reported as being used in offices on the European continent as late as 1909.<ref name="Mares">{{Cite book |last=Mares |first=G. C. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201721 |title=The History of the Typewriter |year=1909 |publisher=Guilbert Pitman |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201721/page/n234 230]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Office Museum |url=http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102201621/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |archive-date=2 January 2014 |access-date=1 December 2013}}</ref>
Malling-Hansen used a [[solenoid]] escapement to return the carriage on some of his models, which makes him a candidate for the title of inventor of the first "electric" typewriter.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Rasmus Malling-Hansen Invents the Hansen Writing Ball, the First Commercially Produced Typewriter |url=https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=5383 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=History of Information}}</ref>
The Hansen Writing Ball was produced with only upper-case characters. The Writing Ball was a template for inventor [[Frank Haven Hall]] to create a derivative that would produce letter prints cheaper and faster.<ref name="Devil">{{Cite book |last=Larson |first=Erik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJp22rZDOZQC |title=The Devil in the White City: A Saga of Magic and Murder at the Fair that Changed America |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4000-7631-4 |page=291 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJp22rZDOZQC |archive-date=2018-06-26 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="3lives">{{Cite journal |last=Hendrickson, Walter B. |year=1956 |title=The Three Lives of Frank H. Hall |url=http://dig.lib.niu.edu/ISHS/ishs-1956autumn/ishs-1956autumn-271.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society |publisher=University of Illinois Press |volume=49 |issue=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806034158/http://dig.lib.niu.edu/ISHS/ishs-1956autumn/ishs-1956autumn-271.pdf |archive-date=2010-08-06}}</ref><ref name="Museum">{{Cite web |last=Anonymous |date=24 April 2011 |title=Hall Braille Writer |url=http://www.aph.org/museum/braillewriters/1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427203920/http://www.aph.org/museum/braillewriters/1.html |archive-date=27 April 2012 |access-date=29 February 2012 |publisher=American Printing House for the Blind, Inc.}}</ref>
Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter further through the 1870s and 1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the same. On the first model of the writing ball from 1870, the paper was attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was replaced by a carriage, moving beneath the writing head. Then, in 1875, the well-known "tall model" was patented, which was the first of the writing balls that worked without electricity. Malling-Hansen attended the world exhibitions in [[Vienna]] in 1873 and Paris in 1878 and he received the first-prize for his invention at both exhibitions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Otto Burghagen |title=Die Schreibmaschine. Illustrierte Beschreibung aller gangbaren Schreibmaschinen nebst gründlicher Anleitung zum Arbeiten auf sämtlichen Systemen |year=1898}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dieter Eberwein |title=Nietzsches Schreibkugel. Ein Blick auf Nietzsches Schreibmaschinenzeit durch die Restauration der Schreibkugel. Eberwein-Typoskriptverlag |publisher=Schauenburg 2005.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Johanne Agerskov |title=''Hvem er Skrivekuglens Opfinder?'' |year=1925}}</ref>
=== Sholes and Glidden typewriter ===
{{Main|Sholes and Glidden typewriter}}
[[File:Sholes typewriter.jpg|thumb|upright|Prototype of the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, the first commercially successful typewriter, and the first with a QWERTY keyboard (1873)]]
The first typewriter to be commercially successful was patented in 1868 by Americans [[Christopher Latham Sholes]], [[Frank Haven Hall]], [[Carlos Glidden]] and [[Samuel W. Soule]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 23, 1868 |title=Drawing for a Typewriter |url=https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/drawing-for-a-typewriter |website=docsteach.org |<!--original publisher-->publisher=Records of the Patent and Trademark Office, Record Group 241.}}</ref> although Sholes soon disowned the machine and refused to use or even recommend it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jocher |first1=Katharine |last2=Bliven |first2=Bruce |year=1954 |title=Reviewed work: The Typewriter and the Men Who Made It., Richard N. Current; the Wonderful Writing Machine., Bruce Bliven, Jr |journal=Social Forces |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=197–198 |doi=10.2307/2573562 |jstor=2573562}}</ref> The working prototype was made by clock-maker and machinist Matthias Schwalbach.<ref name=WCH>{{Cite web |title=First Practical Typewriter |date=March 22, 2007 |access-date=25 April 2021 |publisher=Wisconsin Historical Society |url=https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/Records/Article/CS2697}}</ref> Hall, Glidden and Soule sold their shares in the patent (US 79,265) to Densmore and Sholes,<ref name=Current /> who made an agreement with [[E. Remington and Sons]] (then famous as a manufacturer of [[sewing machine]]s) to commercialize the machine as the ''[[Sholes and Glidden typewriter|Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer]]''.<ref name=WCH /> This was the origin of the term ''typewriter''.
Remington began production of its first typewriter on March 1, 1873, in [[Ilion, New York]]. It had a [[QWERTY]] keyboard layout, which, because of the machine's success, was slowly adopted by other typewriter manufacturers. As with most other early typewriters, because the '''typebars''' strike upwards, the typist could not see the characters as they were typed.<ref name=Current>{{cite journal | last=Current |first=Richard N. |title=The Original Typewriter Enterprise 1867–1873 |journal=The Wisconsin Magazine of History |volume= 32 |number= 4 | year= 1949 |pages= 391–407 |jstor=4632060 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4632060 | access-date=25 April 2021}}</ref>
=== Index typewriter ===
[[File:Hall 1 typewriter, 1881 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Hall 1 typewriter, 1881 - The first index typewriter]]
[[File:Columbia 2 typewriter, 1886 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Columbia 2 typewriter, 1886 - Early index typewriter with proportional spacing]]
[[File:Victor typewriter, 1889 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Victor typewriter, 1889 - The first successful typewriter to use a daisy wheel]]
[[File:Mignon Mod.4,Bj.1924.jpg|thumb|right|A Mignon Model 4 index typewriter from 1924]]
The index typewriter came into the market in the early 1880s.<ref name="EOM">{{Cite web |title=Antique Index Typewriters |url=http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters_index.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702212611/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters_index.htm |archive-date=2 July 2016 |access-date=13 March 2017 |website=Early Office Museum}}</ref> The index typewriter uses a pointer or stylus to choose a letter from an index. The pointer is mechanically linked so that the letter chosen could then be printed, most often by the activation of a lever.<ref name=":1" />
The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard type machines, they were mechanically simpler and lighter. They were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers and, because they could be produced more cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to produce small quantities of typed correspondence.<ref name="EOM"/>
For example, the Simplex Typewriter Company made index typewriters for 1/40 the price of a Remington typewriter.<ref name="PoltWeb">{{cite web |first=Richard |last=Polt |website=The Classic Typewriter Page |url=https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/simplex.html |title=Simplex |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606050123/https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/simplex.html |archive-date=6 June 2021 }}.</ref>
The index typewriter's niche appeal however soon disappeared, as on the one hand new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more portable and on the other refurbished second-hand machines began to become available.<ref name="EOM"/> The last widely available western index machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by [[AEG (German company)|AEG]] which was produced until 1934. Considered one of the very best of the index typewriters, part of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured both interchangeable indexes and [[Sort (typesetting)|type]],<ref name="Mignon2">{{Cite web |title=The Mignon 2 |url=http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/brands/index.php3?machine=indexmignon2&cat=is |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003035122/http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/brands/index.php3?machine=indexmignon2&cat=is |archive-date=3 October 2016 |access-date=13 March 2017 |website=The Virtual Typewriter Museum}}</ref> allowing the use of different [[font]]s and [[character set]]s, something very few keyboard machines allowed and only at considerable added cost.<ref name="Mignon2"/>
Although pushed out of the market in most of the world by keyboard machines, successful [[Japanese typewriter|Japanese]] and [[Chinese typewriter]]s are of the index type albeit with a very much larger index and number of type elements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mullaney |first=Thomas S. |date=2016 |title=Controlling the Kanjisphere: The Rise of the Sino-Japanese Typewriter and the Birth of CJK |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44166285 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=725–753 |doi=10.1017/S0021911816000577 |jstor=44166285 |issn=0021-9118|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[Embossing tape]] label makers are the most common index typewriters today, and perhaps the most common typewriters of any kind still being manufactured.<ref name="PoltWeb"/>
The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.<ref name="The Remington Type-Writing Machine">{{Cite journal |year=1876 |title=The Remington Type-Writing Machine |journal=Nature |volume=14 |issue=342 |pages=43–44 |bibcode=1876Natur..14...43. |doi=10.1038/014043a0 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Other typewriters ===
* [[File:Hammond 1 typewriter (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Hammond 1 typewriter, 1885]]1884 – Hammond "Ideal" typewriter with case, by Hammond Typewriter Company Limited, United States. Despite an unusual, curved keyboard (see picture in citation), the Hammond became popular because of its superior print quality and changeable typeface. Invented by James Hammond of Boston, Massachusetts in 1880, and commercially released in 1884. The type is carried on a pair of interchangeable rotating sectors, one controlled by each half of the keyboard. A small hammer pushes the paper against the ribbon and type sector to print each character. The mechanism was later adapted to give a straight QWERTY keyboard and proportional spacing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Two Hammond 'Ideal' typewriters, one with case |url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co37725/two-hammond-ideal-typewriters-one-with-case-typewriter |website=Science Museum Group Collection |access-date=27 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[File:Fitch 1 typewriter, 1888 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Fitch 1 typewriter, 1888]]1888 – Fitch typewriter – Made by the Fitch Typewriter Company, Brooklyn, N.Y. and later in the UK with a slightly different look. Operators of the early typewriters had to work "blind": the typed text emerged only after several lines had been completed or the carriage was lifted to look underneath at the page. The Fitch was one of the first machines to allow prompt correction of mistakes with its visible writing; it was said to be the second machine operating on the visible writing system. The typebars were positioned behind the paper and the writing area faced upwards so that the result could be seen instantly. A curved frame kept the emerging paper from obscuring the keyboard, but the Fitch was soon eclipsed by machines in which the paper could be fed more conveniently at the rear.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Fitch typewriter, 1891 {{!}} Science Museum Group Collection|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co38149/fitch-typewriter-1891-typewriters|access-date=2021-11-23|website=collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk|language=en}}</ref>
* [[File:Underwood 1 typewriter, 1896.jpg|thumb|Underwood 1 typewriter, 1896 - The typewriter that would set the design standard for the new century, with three rows of keys, front strike visible and a single shift key. It also had a wonderfuly light and fast typing action.]]1893 – Gardner typewriter. This typewriter, patented by Mr J Gardner in 1893, was an attempt to reduce the size and cost. Although it prints 84 symbols, it has only 14 keys and two change-case keys. Several characters are indicated on each key and the character printed is determined by the position of the case keys, which choose one of six cases.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gardner typewriter, c. 1893 |publisher=Science Museum Group Collection|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co37730/gardner-typewriter-c-1893-typewriter|access-date=2021-11-23|website=collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk|language=en}}</ref>
* 1896 – The "Underwood 1 typewriter, 10" Pica, No. 990". This was the first typewriter with a typing area fully visible to the typist until a key is struck. These features, copied by all subsequent typewriters, allowed the typist to see and if necessary correct the typing as it proceeded. The mechanism was developed in the US by Franz X. Wagner from about 1892 and taken up, in 1895, by John T. Underwood (1857–1937), a producer of office supplies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Underwood 1 Typewriter, 1897 {{!}} Science Museum Group Collection|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co38171/underwood-1-typewriter-1897-typewriter|access-date=2021-11-22|website=collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:A Very Early Typewritten Letter as Part of a Court Case in the Utah Territory, dated 1886.tif|thumb|left|A very early typewritten letter as part of a court case in the Utah Territory, from Appeal #6544, dated 1886.]]
=== Standardization ===
By about 1910, the "manual" or "mechanical" typewriter had reached a somewhat [[Standardization|standardized]] design.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mechanical Typewriter Explained: How Typewriters Work |url=https://www.gadgetexplained.com/2015/11/mechanical-typewriter-explained-how.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Gadget Explained – Reviews Gadgets Electronics Tech}}</ref> There were minor variations from one manufacturer to another, but most typewriters followed the concept that each key was attached to a typebar that had the corresponding letter molded, in reverse, into its striking head. When a key was struck briskly and firmly, the typebar hit a ribbon (usually made of [[ink]]ed [[Cloth|fabric]]), making a printed mark on the paper wrapped around a cylindrical [[platen]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCormack |first=Harry S. |date=2 May 1907 |title=Type-Writing Machine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4x1LAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA385 |journal=Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office |volume=134 |pages=385}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of Typewriters |url=https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/tw-history.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The Classic Typewriter Page}}</ref>
The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.<ref name="The Remington Type-Writing Machine"/> Typewriters for languages written [[right-to-left]] operate in the opposite direction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=The typewriter: an informal history |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_informal.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM Archives |language=en-US}}</ref>
==== Frontstriking ====
In most of the early typewriters, the typebars struck upward against the paper, pressed against the bottom of the [[platen]], so the typist could not see the text as it was typed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Martyn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhUwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA205 |title=Approaches to the History of Written Culture: A World Inscribed |last2=Marquilhas |first2=Rita |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-54136-5 |language=en}}</ref> What was typed was not visible until a carriage return caused it to scroll into view.[[File:Daugherty typewriter (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Daugherty typewriter, 1893]]The difficulty with any other arrangement was ensuring the typebars fell back into place reliably when the key was released. This was eventually achieved with various ingenious mechanical designs and so-called "visible typewriters" which used frontstriking, in which the typebars struck forward against the front side of the platen, became standard.
One of the first was the Daugherty Visible, introduced in 1893, which also introduced the four-bank keyboard that became standard, although the Underwood which came out two years later was the first major typewriter with these features.<ref name="Robert1">{{Cite web |last=Robert |first=Paul |title=Daugherty |url=http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/index.php3?machine=daugh&cat=kf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110729132951/http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/index.php3?machine=daugh&cat=kf |archive-date=July 29, 2011 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |website=Collection |publisher=The Virtual Typewriter Museum}}</ref><ref name="Seaver1">{{Cite web |last=Seaver |first=Alan |year=2011 |title=Daugherty Visible |url=http://machinesoflovinggrace.com/ptf/VisDaughertyPittsburg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511211636/http://machinesoflovinggrace.com/ptf/VisDaughertyPittsburg.html |archive-date=May 11, 2013 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |website=Machines of Loving Grace website |publisher=Alan Seaver}}</ref>
==== Shift key ====
[[File:Remington 2 typewriter (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Remington 2 typewriter, 1878]]
[[File:Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard,_Single-Shift,_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png|thumb|Comparison of full-keyboard, single-shift, and double-shift typewriters in 1911]]
[[File:Hemingway Corona number 3 typewriter.jpg|thumb|Corona #3 typewriter owned by [[Ernest Hemingway]], with a "FIG" shift key as well as a "CAP" shift key]]
A significant innovation was the [[shift key]], introduced with the [[E. Remington and Sons|Remington]] No. 2 in 1878. This key physically "shifted" either the basket of typebars, in which case the typewriter is described as "basket shift", or the paper-holding carriage, in which case the typewriter is described as "carriage shift".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Mark |first1= Adams on |date=October 24, 2013 |title=Remington Standard No. 2: "Lower Case" vs. "Shift Key"? |url=https://type-writer.org/?p=1765 |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Type-Writer.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Either mechanism caused a different portion of the typebar to come in contact with the ribbon/platen.
The result is that each typebar could type two different characters, cutting the number of keys and typebars in half (and simplifying the internal mechanisms considerably). The obvious use for this was to allow letter keys to type both [[Letter case|upper and lower case]], but normally the number keys were also duplexed, allowing access to special symbols such as percent, {{char|%}}, and ampersand, {{char|&}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Typing Through Time: Keyboard History |url=https://www.daskeyboard.com/blog/typing-through-time-the-history-of-the-keyboard/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Das Keyboard Mechanical Keyboard Blog |language=en-US}}</ref>
Before the shift key, typewriters had to have a separate key and typebar for upper-case letters; in essence, the typewriter had two keyboards, one above the other. With the shift key, manufacturing costs (and therefore purchase price) were greatly reduced, and typist operation was simplified; both factors contributed greatly to mass adoption of the technology.
===== Three-bank typewriters =====
Certain models further reduced the number of keys and typebars by making each key perform three functions – each typebar could type three different characters. These little three-row machines were portable and could be used by journalists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mosher |first=Charles Philo |date=10 April 1917 |title=Type-Writing Machine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DngbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA537 |journal=Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office |page=537}}</ref>
Such three-row machines were popular with WWI journalists because they were lighter and more compact than four-bank typewriters, while they could type just as fast and use just as many symbols.<ref>
Alan Seaver.
[http://sevenels.net/typewriters/3banks.htm "Three-Bank Typewriters"]
</ref>
Such three-row machines, such as the Bar-Let<ref>
[https://www.typewriters101.com/collection.html "My Typewriter Collection: Bar-Let Model 2"].
</ref>
and the [[Smith Corona#Corona Typewriter Company|Corona]] No. 3 Typewriter<ref>
Smithsonian National Museum of American History.
[https://www.si.edu/object/corona-typewriter%3Anmah_849921 "Corona No. 3 Typewriter"]
</ref><ref>
[https://www.typewriters101.com/store/p430/1921_Corona_Folding_No._3.html "1921 Corona Folding No. 3"].
</ref>
have two separate shift keys, a "CAP" shift (for uppercase) and a "FIG" shift (for numbers and symbols).<ref>
Anthony Casillo.
[https://books.google.com/books?id=emcqDwAAQBAJ "Typewriters: Iconic Machines from the Golden Age of Mechanical Writing"].
2017.
p. 116; 197 - 198.
</ref>
The [[Murray code]] was developed for a [[teletypewriter]] with a similar three-row typewriter keyboard.<ref>
[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuIOu97MduQC "Principles of Telegraphy, Teletypewriter"].
1967.
p. A-15.
</ref>
==== Tab key ====
To facilitate typewriter use in business settings, a tab (tabulator) key was added in the late nineteenth century. Before using the key, the operator had to set mechanical "tab stops", pre-designated locations to which the carriage would advance when the tab key was pressed. This facilitated the typing of columns of numbers, freeing the operator from the need to manually position the carriage. The first models had one tab stop and one tab key; later ones allowed as many stops as desired, and sometimes had multiple tab keys, each of which moved the carriage a different number of spaces ahead of the decimal point (the tab stop), to facilitate the typing of columns with numbers of different length ($1.00, $10.00, $100.00, etc.)
==== Dead keys ====
{{Main|Dead key}}
Languages such as French, Spanish, and German required [[diacritic]]s, special signs attached to or on top of the base letter: for example, a combination of the [[acute accent]] {{char|´}} plus {{char|e}} produced {{char|é}}; {{char|~}} plus {{char|n}} produced {{char|ñ}}. In [[Typesetting#Movable type|metal typesetting]], {{angbr|é}}, {{angbr|ñ}}, and others were separate [[Sort (typesetting)|sorts]]. With mechanical typewriters, the number of whose characters (sorts) was constrained by the physical limits of the machine, the number of keys required was reduced by the use of [[dead keys]]. Diacritics such as {{char|´}} ([[acute accent]]) would be assigned to a [[dead key]], which did not move the [[platen]] forward, permitting another character to be imprinted at the same location; thus a single dead key such as the acute accent could be combined with {{char|a}},{{char|e}},{{char|i}},{{char|o}} and {{char|u}} to produce {{char|á}},{{char|é}},{{char|í}},{{char|ó}} and {{char|ú}}, reducing the number of sorts needed from 5 to 1. The typebars of "normal" characters struck a rod as they moved the metal character desired toward the ribbon and platen, and each rod depression moved the platen forward the width of one character. Dead keys had a typebar shaped so as not to strike the rod.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Smalley |first1=William A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXM_RL4UWe0C&pg=PA115 |title=Mother of Writing: The Origin and Development of a Hmong Messianic Script |last2=Vang |first2=Chia Koua |last3=Yang |first3=Gnia Yee |date=1990|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-76287-6 |language=en}}</ref>
==== Character sizes ====
{{more|Point (typography)|Pitch (typewriter)}}
In English-speaking countries, ordinary typewriters printing fixed-width characters were standardized to print six horizontal lines per vertical inch, and had either of two variants of character width, one called ''pica'' for ten characters per horizontal inch and the other ''elite'', for twelve. This differed from the use of these terms in printing, where [[Pica (typography)|pica]] is a linear unit (approximately {{frac|1|6}} of an inch) used for any measurement, the most common one being the height of a type face.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief Chronology of the Typewriter |url=http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/pro05.htm |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.quadibloc.com}}</ref>
==== Color ====
Some ribbons were inked in black and red stripes, each being half the width and running the entire length of the ribbon. A lever on most machines allowed switching between colors, which was useful for bookkeeping entries where negative amounts were highlighted in red. The red color was also used on some selected characters in running text, for emphasis. When a typewriter had this facility, it could still be fitted with a solid black ribbon; the lever was then used to switch to fresh ribbon when the first stripe ran out of ink. Some typewriters also had a third position which stopped the ribbon being struck at all. This enabled the keys to hit the paper unobstructed, and was used for cutting stencils for [[Mimeograph|stencil duplicators]] (aka mimeograph machines).<ref name="MimeoTypewriter">{{Cite web |title=How to prepare a mimeograph stencil by using a typewriter |url=http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtoprepareamimeographstencil2.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121016144524/http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtoprepareamimeographstencil2.htm |archive-date=2012-10-16 |access-date=2011-05-10 |website=LinguaLinks Library |publisher=SIL International}}</ref>
==== "Noiseless" designs ====
[[File:Rapid typewriter, 1890 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Rapid typewriter, 1890]]
The first typewriter to have the sliding type bars (laid out horizontally like a fan) that enable a typewriter to be 'noiseless' was the American made Rapid which appeared briefly on the market in 1890. The Rapid also had the remarkable ability for the typist to have entire control of the carriage by manipulation of the keyboard alone. The two keys that achieve this are positioned at the top of the keyboard (seen in the detail image below). They are a ‘Lift’ key that advances the paper, on the platen, to the next line and a ‘Return’ key that causes the carriage to automatically swing back to the right, ready for one to type the new line. So an entire page could be typed without one’s hands leaving the keyboard.
In the early part of the 20th century, a typewriter was marketed under the name Noiseless and advertised as "silent". It was developed by Wellington Parker Kidder and the first model was marketed by the Noiseless Typewriter Company in 1917.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Noiseless Portable |url=https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/noiselessportable.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The Classic Typewriter Page}}</ref> Noiseless portables sold well in the 1930s and 1940s, and noiseless standards continued to be manufactured until the 1960s. <ref name="ja" />
In a conventional typewriter the type bar reaches the end of its travel simply by striking the ribbon and paper. The Noiseless, developed by Kidder, has a complex lever mechanism that decelerates the type bar mechanically before pressing it against the ribbon and paper in an attempt to dampen the noise.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gould |first=R. T. |title=The Modern Typewriter and ITS Probable Future Development |date=1928 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41357995 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Arts |volume=76 |issue=3940 |pages=717–738 |jstor=41357995 |issn=0035-9114}}</ref>
=== Electric designs ===
Although electric typewriters would not achieve widespread popularity until nearly a century later, the basic groundwork for the electric typewriter was laid by the [[Universal Stock Ticker]], invented by [[Thomas Edison]] in 1870. This device remotely printed letters and numbers on a stream of paper tape from input generated by a specially designed typewriter at the other end of a telegraph line.
==== Early electric models ====
Some electric typewriters were patented in the 19th century, but the first machine known to be produced in series is the Cahill of 1900.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bert Kerschbaumer, "The Cahill Electrical Typewriters," ETCetera No. 100 (December 2012) |url=http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC100.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730133043/http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC100.pdf |archive-date=2016-07-30}}</ref>
Another electric typewriter was produced by the [[Blickensderfer typewriter|Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company]], of [[Stamford, Connecticut]], in 1902. Like the manual Blickensderfer typewriters, it used a cylindrical typewheel rather than individual typebars. The machine was produced in several variants but apparently not a commercial success,<ref>{{Cite web |title=P. Robert Aubert, "The Last Service Call," ETCetera No. 33(December 1995) |url=http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC033.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730133642/http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC033.pdf |archive-date=2016-07-30}}</ref> having come to market ahead of its time, before ubiquitous [[electrification]].
The next step in the development of the electric typewriter came in 1910, when Charles and Howard Krum filed a patent for the first practical [[teleprinter|teletypewriter]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Patent 1,286,351 filed in May, 1910, and issued in December, 1918 |url=http://patimg2.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=01286351&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D1286351.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F1286351%2526RS%3DPN%2F1286351&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225235913/http://patimg2.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=01286351&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D1286351.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F1286351%2526RS%3DPN%2F1286351&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page |archive-date=2016-12-25 |access-date=2011-09-16}}</ref> The Krums' machine, named the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, used a typewheel rather than individual typebars. This machine was used for the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between [[Boston]] and New York City in 1910.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Colin Hempstead, William E. Worthington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA605 |title=Encyclopedia of 20th Century Technology |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-57958-464-1 |page=605}}</ref>
[[James Fields Smathers]] of Kansas City invented what is considered the first practical power-operated typewriter in 1914. In 1920, after returning from Army service, he produced a successful model and in 1923 turned it over to the Northeast Electric Company of Rochester for development. Northeast was interested in finding new markets for their electric motors and developed Smathers's design so that it could be marketed to typewriter manufacturers, and from 1925 Remington Electric typewriters were produced powered by Northeast's motors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=The history of IBM electric typewriters |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_history.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM Archives |language=en-US}}</ref>
After some 2,500 electric typewriters had been produced, Northeast asked Remington for a firm contract for the next batch. However, Remington was engaged in merger talks, which would eventually result in the creation of [[Remington Rand]] and no executives were willing to commit to a firm order. Northeast instead decided to enter the typewriter business for itself, and in 1929 produced the first Electromatic Typewriter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IBM Electromatic Typewriter |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1155510 |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=National Museum of American History |language=en}}</ref>
In 1928, [[Delco Electronics|Delco]], a division of [[General Motors]], purchased Northeast Electric, and the typewriter business was spun off as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by [[IBM]], which then spent [[United States dollar|$]]1 million on a redesign of the Electromatic Typewriter, launching the IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2003 |title=IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01 |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2240.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526135454/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2240.html |archive-date=2013-05-26 |access-date=2013-09-12 |publisher=03.ibm.com}}</ref>
In 1931, an electric typewriter was introduced by Varityper Corporation. It was called the [[Varityper]], because a narrow cylinder-like wheel could be replaced to change the [[font]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 1931 |title=Changing the Type of Typewriter Made Easy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA83 |url-status=live |journal=[[Popular Mechanics]] |page=83 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA83 |archive-date=2018-06-26}}</ref>
In 1941, IBM announced the Electromatic Model 04 electric typewriter, featuring the revolutionary concept of proportional spacing. By assigning varied rather than uniform spacing to different sized characters, the Type 4 recreated the appearance of a typeset page, an effect that was further enhanced by including the 1937 innovation of carbon-film ribbons that produced clearer, sharper words on the page.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2003 |title=IBM Typewriter Milestones |url=https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627172904/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html |archive-date=2017-06-27 |publisher=IBM Archives}}</ref>
==== IBM Selectric ====
{{Main|IBM Selectric typewriter}}
[[File:Selectric II.jpg|thumb|IBM Selectric II (dual Latin/Hebrew typeball and keyboard)]]
IBM introduced the [[IBM Selectric typewriter]] in 1961, which replaced the typebars with a spherical element (or '''typeball''') slightly smaller than a [[golf ball]], with reverse-image letters molded into its surface. The Selectric used a system of latches, metal tapes, and pulleys driven by an electric motor to rotate the ball into the correct position and then strike it against the ribbon and platen. The typeball moved laterally in front of the paper, instead of the previous designs using a platen-carrying carriage moving the paper across a stationary print position.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-20 |title=A different type of dance move |url=https://www.ibm.com/blogs/industries/selectric-typewriter-dancers/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Industrious |language=en-US}}</ref>
Due to the physical similarity, the typeball was sometimes referred to as a "golfball".<ref name="ibm100">{{Cite web |last=IBM |date=7 March 2012 |title=The Selectric Typewriter |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/selectric/ |access-date=20 January 2020 |website=Icons of Progress}}</ref> The typeball design had many advantages, especially the elimination of "jams" (when more than one key was struck at once and the typebars became entangled) and in the ability to change the typeball, allowing multiple fonts to be used in a single document.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-03-07 |title=The Selectric Typewriter |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/selectric/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM100 |language=en-US}}</ref>
The IBM Selectric became a commercial success, dominating the office typewriter market for at least two decades.<ref name="ibm100" /> IBM also gained an advantage by marketing more heavily to schools than did Remington, with the idea that students who learned to type on a Selectric would later choose IBM typewriters over the competition in the workplace as businesses replaced their old manual models.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jackson |first=Nicholas |date=2011-07-27 |title=IBM Reinvented the Typewriter With the Selectric 50 Years Ago |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/07/ibm-reinvented-the-typewriter-with-the-selectric-50-years-ago/242624/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The Atlantic |language=en-US}}</ref>
Later models of IBM Executives and Selectrics replaced inked fabric ribbons with "carbon film" ribbons that had a dry black or colored powder on a clear plastic tape. These could be used only once, but later models used a cartridge that was simple to replace. A side effect of this technology was that the text typed on the machine could be easily read from the used ribbon, raising issues where the machines were used for preparing classified documents (ribbons had to be accounted for to ensure that typists did not carry them from the facility).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellen |first=David |title=Scientific Examination of Documents |publisher=CRC Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8493-3925-7 |pages=106–107}}</ref>
{{anchor|Correcting typewriters}}
A variation known as "Correcting Selectrics" introduced a correction feature, later imitated by competing machines, where a sticky tape in front of the carbon film ribbon could remove the black-powdered image of a typed character, eliminating the need for little bottles of white dab-on correction fluid and for hard erasers that could tear the paper. These machines also introduced selectable "pitch" so that the typewriter could be switched between [[Pica (typography)|pica]] type (10 characters per inch) and elite type (12 per inch), even within one document. Even so, all Selectrics were [[Proportional fonts|monospaced]] – each character and letterspace was allotted the same width on the page, from a capital "W" to a period. IBM did produce a successful typebar-based machine with five levels of proportional spacing, called the [[IBM Executive series typewriter|IBM Executive]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wershler-Henry |first=Darren |url=https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254 |title=The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8014-4586-6 |location=Ithaca and London |page=[https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254 254] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
The only fully electromechanical Selectric Typewriter with fully proportional spacing and which used a Selectric type element was the expensive [[IBM Selectric Composer|Selectric Composer]], which was capable of right-margin justification (typing each line twice was required, once to calculate and again to print) and was considered a [[Typesetter|typesetting machine]] rather than a typewriter. Composer typeballs physically resembled those of the Selectric typewriter but were not interchangeable.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=IBM Office Products Division highlights |page= 2 |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_office2.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM Archives |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Sample of IBM Magnetic Card Composer Output.png|thumb|Composer output showing [[Roman type|Roman]], [[Emphasis (typography)|Bold]] and [[Italic font]]s available by changing the type ball]]In addition to its electronic successors, the [[IBM Selectric typewriter#Selectric-based machines with data storage|Magnetic Tape Selectric Composer]] (MT/SC), the Mag Card Selectric Composer, and the Electronic Selectric Composer, IBM also made electronic typewriters with proportional spacing using the Selectric element that were considered typewriters or [[word processor]]s instead of typesetting machines.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-19 |title=IBM MT/ST (1964 – late 1970s) |url=https://obsoletemedia.org/ibm-mtst/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Museum of Obsolete Media |language=en-GB}}</ref>
The first of these was the relatively obscure Mag Card Executive, which used 88-character elements. Later, some of the same typestyles used for it were used on the 96-character elements used on the IBM Electronic Typewriter 50 and the later models 65 and 85.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=IBM typewriter milestones |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone2.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM Archives |language=en-US|page=2}}</ref>
By 1970, as [[offset printing]] began to replace [[letterpress printing]], the Composer would be adapted as the output unit for a typesetting system. The system included a computer-driven input station to capture the key strokes on magnetic tape and insert the operator's format commands, and a Composer unit to read the tape and produce the formatted text for photo reproduction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-01-18 |title=Quickprint closes after 72 years, presses roll elsewhere |url=https://www.superiortelegram.com/news/quickprint-closes-after-72-years-presses-roll-elsewhere |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Superior Telegram |language=en}}</ref>
The [[IBM 2741]] terminal was a popular example of a Selectric-based computer terminal, and similar mechanisms were employed as the console devices for many [[IBM System/360]] computers. These mechanisms used "ruggedized" designs compared to those in standard office typewriters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IBM Selectric Typewriter Resource Page |url=http://www.covingtoninnovations.com/selectric/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.covingtoninnovations.com}}</ref>
==== Later electric models ====
{{Listen
| filename = Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 typing.ogg
| title = Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 being tapped
| description = A recording of the sound of typing on a Smith-Corona electric typewriter.}}
Some of IBM's advances were later adopted in less expensive machines from competitors. For example, [[Smith Corona|Smith-Corona]] electric typewriters introduced in 1973 switched to interchangeable Coronamatic (SCM-patented) ribbon cartridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Smith Corona | Since 1877 to Present |url=http://www.smithcorona.com/history.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322134218/http://www.smithcorona.com/history.html |archive-date=2017-03-22 |access-date=2017-03-12}}</ref> including fabric, film, erasing, and two-color versions. At about the same time, the advent of [[photocopying]] meant that [[Carbon copy|carbon copies]], [[correction fluid]] and [[eraser]]s were less and less necessary; only the original need be typed, and photocopies made from it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dana@mid2mod |date=2011-08-03 |title=Mid2Mod: Back in the day: Typing erasers |url=https://mid2mod.blogspot.com/2011/08/back-in-day-typing-erasers.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Mid2Mod}}</ref>{{better source |reason=[[WP:BLOGS]]|date=March 2024}}
==== Electronic typewriters ====
The final major development of the typewriter was the electronic typewriter. Most of these replaced the typeball with a plastic or metal [[daisy wheel]] mechanism (a disk with the letters molded on the outside edge of the "petals"). The daisy wheel concept first emerged in printers developed by [[Diablo Systems]] in the 1970s. The first electronic daisywheel typewriter marketed in the world (in 1976) is the Olivetti Tes 501, and subsequently in 1978, the Olivetti ET101 (with function display) and Olivetti TES 401 (with text display and floppy disk for memory storage). This has allowed Olivetti to maintain the world record in the design of electronic typewriters, proposing increasingly advanced and performing models in the following years.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Giuseppe Silmo |title=M.P.S. Macchine per scrivere Olivetti e non solo |publisher=Fondazione Natale Capellaro |year=2007 |page=74}}</ref>
Unlike the Selectrics and earlier models, these really were "electronic" and relied on integrated circuits and electromechanical components. These typewriters were sometimes called ''display typewriters'',<ref>{{US patent reference|number = 4620808| y = 1986| m = 11| d = 04| title = Display typewriter}}</ref> ''dedicated word processors'' or ''word-processing typewriters'', though the latter term was also frequently applied to less sophisticated machines that featured only a tiny, sometimes just single-row display. Sophisticated models were also called ''word processors'', though today that term almost always denotes a type of software program. Manufacturers of such machines included Olivetti (TES501, first totally electronic Olivetti word processor with daisywheel and floppy disk in 1976; TES621 in 1979 etc.), [[Brother Industries|Brother]] (Brother WP1 and WP500 etc., where WP stood for word processor), [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] ([[Canon Cat]]), [[Smith-Corona]] (PWP, i.e. Personal Word Processor line)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smith-Corona |url=http://mindmachine.co.uk/products/04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html#PWP-series |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528120612/http://mindmachine.co.uk/products/04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html#PWP-series |archive-date=2013-05-28 |access-date=2013-09-12 |publisher=Mindmachine.co.uk}}</ref> and [[Philips]]/[[Magnavox]] ([[VideoWriter]]).
<gallery class="center">
File:Type.jpg|Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] Typestar 110
File:Brother WP1-IMG 6991.jpg|The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a [[floppy disk]] reader
</gallery>
=== Decline===
The pace of change was so rapid that it was common for clerical staff to have to learn several new systems, one after the other, in just a few years.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203221938-5/women-clerical-workers-typewriter-writing-machine-margery-davies|chapter=Women Clerical Workers and the Typwriter: The Writing Machine|date=2004-01-14|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-22193-8|language=en|doi=10.4324/9780203221938|title= Technology and Women's Voices|editor-first=Cheris|editor-last=Kramarae|first=Margery W.|last=Davies}}</ref> While such rapid change is commonplace today, and is taken for granted, this was not always so; in fact, typewriting technology changed very little in its first 80 or 90 years.<ref>{{Cite web|last=AO|date=2020-01-29|title=The Society-Changing Invention of Typewriters|url=https://historythings.com/life-changing-invention-typewriters/|access-date=2021-05-18|website=History Things|language=en-US}}</ref>
Due to falling sales, IBM sold its typewriter division in 1991 to the newly formed [[Lexmark]], completely exiting from a market it once dominated.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1991-01-12 |title=Company News; I.B.M. to Complete Unit Sale in March |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/12/business/company-news-ibm-to-complete-unit-sale-in-march.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
The increasing dominance of personal computers, [[desktop publishing]], the introduction of low-cost, truly high-quality [[laser printer|laser]] and [[inkjet printer]] technologies, and the pervasive use of [[web publishing]], [[email]], [[text messaging]], and other electronic communication techniques have largely replaced typewriters in the United States. Still, {{as of|2009|lc=y}}, typewriters continued to be used by a number of government agencies and other institutions in the US, where they are primarily used to fill preprinted forms. According to a Boston typewriter repairman quoted by ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', "Every maternity ward has a typewriter, as well as funeral homes".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Keene |first=Cindy Atoji |date=2009-02-01 |title=Typewriters ring on in the fringes |work=The Boston Globe |url=https://www.boston.com/jobs/news/articles/2009/02/01/typewriters_ring_on_in_the_fringes/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826014156/http://www.boston.com/jobs/news/articles/2009/02/01/typewriters_ring_on_in_the_fringes/ |archive-date=2013-08-26}}</ref>
A rather specialized market for typewriters exists due to the regulations of many correctional systems in the US, where prisoners are prohibited from having computers or telecommunication equipment, but are allowed to own typewriters. The Swintec corporation (headquartered in [[Moonachie, New Jersey]]), which, as of 2011, still produced typewriters at its overseas factories (in Japan, [[Indonesia]], and/or [[Malaysia]]), manufactures a variety of typewriters for use in prisons, made of clear plastic (to make it harder for prisoners to hide prohibited items inside it). As of 2011, the company had contracts with prisons in 43 US states.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-04-27 |title=The death of the typewriter? Don't write it off yet |url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/death-typewriter-dont-write-it-yet |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503045910/http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/death-typewriter-dont-write-it-yet |archive-date=2011-05-03 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Radio Netherlands Worldwide}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-06-15 |title=Texas inmates have clear choice in typewriters |url=http://fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com/news/2011/06/15/5574540.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426011651/http://fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com/news/2011/06/15/5574540.htm |archive-date=2012-04-26 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com}}</ref>
In April 2011, Godrej and Boyce, a [[Mumbai]]-based manufacturer of mechanical typewriters, closed its doors, leading to a flurry of news reports that the "world's last typewriter factory" had shut down.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CBC News |date=April 26, 2011 |title=World's last typewriter plant stops production |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html |url-status=live |access-date=April 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429015137/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |quote=A previous version of this story did not clearly state that Godrej & Boyce appears to be the world's last maker of mechanical typewriters, which operate solely on human power. Numerous other manufacturers continue to make several types of electric typewriters.}}</ref> The reports were quickly contested, with opinions settling to agree that it was indeed the world's last producer of manual typewriters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-04-26 |title=Wite Out? World's 'last typewriter factory' apparently isn't |url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1 |first=Douglas |last=Stanglin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707111148/http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1 |archive-date=2012-07-07 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=USA Today }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Romenesko |first=Jim |date=2011-04-26 |title=Reports of typewriter's death are premature |url=http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/129512/reports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904024830/http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/129512/reports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature/ |archive-date=2011-09-04 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Poynter. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Memmott |first=Mark |date=2011-04-26 |title=Has The Last Typewriter Factory Closed? Not Really |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/26/135740246/has-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313204452/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/26/135740246/has-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really |archive-date=2012-03-13 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=NPR }}</ref><ref name="rohrlich">{{Cite web |last=Rohrlich |first=Justin |date=2011-04-25 |title=Contrary to Reports, Typewriter Industry "Far From Dead" |url=http://www.minyanville.com/mvpremium/2011/04/25/contrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry |url-status=dead |website=Minyanville |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224204135/http://www.minyanville.com/mvpremium/2011/04/25/contrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry/ |archive-date=2016-02-24}}</ref>
In November 2012, Brother's UK factory manufactured what it claimed to be the last typewriter ever made in the UK; the typewriter was donated to the [[London Science Museum]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-11-20 |title=UK's 'last typewriter' produced |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20391538 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219184806/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20391538 |archive-date=2013-12-19 |access-date=2013-09-12 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>
Russian typewriters use [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], which has made the ongoing [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] [[Azerbaijani alphabet|reconversion]] from [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] to [[Latin alphabet]] more difficult. In 1997, the government of [[Turkey]] offered to donate western typewriters to the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]] in exchange for more zealous and exclusive promotion of the Latin alphabet for the Azerbaijani language; this offer, however, was declined.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cornell |first=Svante |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_qQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 |title=Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1135796693 |page=283}}</ref>
In Latin America and Africa, mechanical typewriters are still common because they can be used without electrical power. In Latin America, the typewriters used are most often Brazilian models; Brazil continues to produce mechanical (Facit) and electronic (Olivetti) typewriters to the present day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ainda se fabricam máquinas de escrever? (''Are typewriters still manufactured?'') |url=http://mundoestranho.abril.com.br/materia/ainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425025818/http://mundoestranho.abril.com.br/materia/ainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever |archive-date=2012-04-25 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Mundoestranho.abril.com.br}}</ref>
The early 21st century saw revival of interest in typewriters among certain subcultures, including [[maker culture|makers]], [[steampunk]]s, [[hipster (contemporary subculture)|hipsters]], and street poets.<ref name="PoltBook"/>
== Correction technologies ==
According to the standards taught in secretarial schools in the mid-20th century, a [[business letter]] was supposed to have no mistakes and no visible corrections.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Lynn |last=Peril |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1036875148 |title=Swimming in the steno pool : a retro guide to making it in the office |date=2011 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |pages=232 |oclc=1036875148}}</ref>
=== Typewriter erasers ===
[[File:Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg|thumb|Triumph typewriter eraser (1960)]]
The traditional erasing method involved the use of a special ''typewriter [[eraser]]'' made of [[hard rubber]] that contained an [[abrasive]] material. Some were thin, flat disks, pink or gray, approximately {{convert|2|in|mm}} in diameter by {{convert|1/8|in|mm}} thick, with a brush attached from the center, while others looked like pink pencils, with a sharpenable eraser at the "lead" end and a stiff nylon brush at the other end. Either way, these tools made possible erasure of individual typed letters. Business letters were typed on heavyweight, high-rag-content bond paper, not merely to provide a luxurious appearance, but also to stand up to erasure.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=November 1947 |title=Rotating Typewriter Eraser |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA128 |magazine=Popular Mechanics |page=128 |access-date=2022-04-27}}</ref>
Typewriter eraser brushes were necessary for clearing eraser crumbs and paper dust, and using the brush properly was an important element of typewriting skill; if erasure detritus fell into the typewriter, a small buildup could cause the typebars to jam in their narrow supporting grooves.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erasing History |url=https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/may-2009/erasing-history |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Perspectives on History {{!}} AHA}}</ref>
[[File:Erasing Shield Stainless Steel.jpg|thumb|Erasing Shield (1992)]]
=== Erasing shield ===
Erasing a set of [[carbon copies]] was particularly difficult, and called for the use of a device called an ''[[erasing shield]]'' or ''eraser shield'' (a thin stainless-steel rectangle about {{convert|2|by|3|in}} with several tiny holes in it) to prevent the pressure of erasing on the upper copies from producing carbon smudges on the lower copies. To correct copies, typists had to go from one carbon copy layer to the next carbon copy layer, trying not to get their fingers dirty as they leafed through the carbon papers, and moving and repositioning the eraser shield and eraser for each copy.
=== Erasable bond ===
Paper companies produced a special form of typewriter paper called ''erasable bond'' (for example, [[Eaton's Corrasable Bond]]). This incorporated a thin layer of material that prevented ink from penetrating and was relatively soft and easy to remove from the page. An ordinary soft pencil eraser could quickly produce perfect erasures on this kind of paper. However, the same characteristics that made the paper erasable made the characters subject to smudging due to ordinary friction and deliberate alteration after the fact, making it unacceptable for business correspondence, contracts, or any archival use.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-02-19 |title=Escaping the Bonds of Erasable Bond |url=https://orwhatyouwill.wordpress.com/2010/02/18/escaping-the-bonds-of-erasable-bond/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Or What You Will |language=en}}</ref>
=== Correction fluid ===
{{Main|Correction fluid}}
In the 1950s and 1960s, [[correction fluid]] made its appearance, under brand names such as [[Liquid Paper]], [[Wite-Out]] and [[Tipp-Ex]]; it was invented by [[Bette Nesmith Graham]]. Correction fluid was a kind of opaque, white, fast-drying paint that produced a fresh white surface onto which, when dry, a correction could be retyped. However, when held to the light, the covered-up characters were visible, as was the patch of dry correction fluid (which was never perfectly flat, and frequently not a perfect match for the color, texture, and luster of the surrounding paper). The standard trick for solving this problem was [[photocopying]] the corrected page, but this was possible only with high quality photocopiers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mejia |first=Zameena |date=2018-07-23 |title=How inventing Liquid Paper got a secretary fired and then turned her into an exec worth $25 million |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/19/inventing-liquid-paper-got-a-secretary-fired-and-then-made-her-rich.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>
A different fluid was available for correcting stencils. It sealed up the stencil ready for retyping but did not attempt to color match.<ref name="MimeoCorrect">{{Cite web |title=How to correct a mimeograph stencil |url=http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtocorrectamimeographstencil.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121016144730/http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtocorrectamimeographstencil.htm |archive-date=2012-10-16 |access-date=2011-05-10 |website=LinguaLinks Library |publisher=SIL International}}</ref>
== Legacy ==
=== Keyboard layouts ===
[[File:UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg|thumb|The "[[QWERTY]]" layout of typewriter keys became a ''de facto'' standard and continues to be used long after the reasons for its adoption (including reduction of key/lever entanglements) have ceased to apply.]]
==== QWERTY ====
{{main|QWERTY}}
The 1874 Sholes & Glidden typewriters established the "QWERTY" layout for the letter keys. During the period in which Sholes and his colleagues were experimenting with this invention, other keyboard arrangements were apparently tried, but these are poorly documented.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liebowitz |first1=S. J. |last2=Stephen E. Margolis |year=1990 |title=The Fable of the Keys |url=http://wwwpub.utdallas.edu/~liebowit/keys1.html |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Law & Economics |publisher=The University of Chicago |volume=XXXIII |issue=April 1990 |pages=1 |doi=10.1086/467198 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703204106/http://wwwpub.utdallas.edu/%7Eliebowit/keys1.html |archive-date=2008-07-03 |access-date=2008-06-18 |quote=This article examines the history, economics, and ergonomics of the typewriter keyboard. We show that David's version of the history of the market's rejection of Dvorak does not report the true history, and we present evidence that the continued use of Qwerty is efficient given the current understanding of keyboard design. |s2cid=14262869|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The QWERTY layout of keys has become the de facto standard for English-language typewriter and computer keyboards. Other languages written in the [[Latin alphabet]] sometimes use variants of the QWERTY layouts, such as the French [[AZERTY]], the Italian [[QZERTY]] and the German [[QWERTZ]] layouts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Francis |first=Darryl |date=2015-11-01 |title=AZERTY & QWERTZ keyboards |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00437980&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA435533172&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |journal=Word Ways |language=English |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=292–295}}</ref>
The QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout possible for the English language. [[Touch typing|Touch-typists]] are required to move their fingers between rows to type the most common letters. Although the QWERTY keyboard was the most commonly used layout in typewriters, a better, less strenuous keyboard was being searched for throughout the late 1900s.<ref>{{Citation |last=Kroemer |first=Karl H.E |title=Keyboards and keying an annotated bibliography of the literature from 1878 to 1999 |journal=Universal Access in the Information Society |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=99–160 |year=2014 |doi=10.1007/s102090100012 |s2cid=207064170}}</ref>
One popular but incorrect<ref name="Smithsonian">{{Cite web |last=Stamp |first=Jimmy |title=Fact of Fiction? The Legend of the QWERTY Keyboard |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/fact-of-fiction-the-legend-of-the-qwerty-keyboard-49863249/ |website=Smithsonian}}</ref> explanation for the QWERTY arrangement is that it was designed to reduce the likelihood of internal clashing of typebars by placing commonly used combinations of letters farther from each other inside the machine.<ref name="David, P.A. 1986">David, P. A. (1986). "Understanding the Economics of QWERTY: the Necessity of History". In Parker, William N., ''Economic History and the Modern Economist''. Basil Blackwell, New York and Oxford.</ref>
==== Other layouts for English ====
A number of radically different layouts such as [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard|Dvorak]] have been proposed to reduce the perceived inefficiencies of QWERTY, but none have been able to displace the QWERTY layout; their proponents claim considerable advantages, but so far none has been widely used. The [[Blickensderfer typewriter]] with its [[DHIATENSOR]] layout may have possibly been the first attempt at optimizing the keyboard layout for efficiency advantages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Instructions for Using the Blickensderfer Typewriter |url=http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa_A0562/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221053745/http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa_A0562/ |archive-date=2014-02-21 |access-date=2014-01-03}}</ref>
On modern keyboards, the exclamation point is the shifted character on the 1 key, because these were the last characters to become "standard" on keyboards. Holding the spacebar down usually suspended the carriage advance mechanism (a so-called "[[dead key]]" feature), allowing one to superimpose multiple keystrikes on a single location. The ¢ symbol (meaning cents) was located above the number 6 on American electric typewriters, whereas [[ANSI]]-[[INCITS]]-standard [[computer keyboard]]s have ^ instead.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130131061059/http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI%20INCITS%20154-1988%20%28R1999%29 ANSI INCITS 154-1988 (R1999) Office Machines and Supplies – Alphanumeric Machines – Keyboard Arrangement (formerly ANSI X3.154-1988 (R1999))] (retrieved 2012-07-04)</ref>
====Keyboards for other languages====
[[File:Lettera 22 2.JPG|thumb|Italian typewriter [[Olivetti Lettera 22]]]]
The keyboards for other Latin languages are broadly similar to QWERTY but are optimised for the relevant orthography. In addition to some changes in the order of letters, perhaps the most obvious is the presence of [[precomposed character]]s and [[diacritic]]s.
Many non-Latin alphabets have keyboard layouts that have nothing to do with QWERTY. The Russian layout, for instance, puts the common trigrams ыва, про, and ить on adjacent keys so that they can be typed by rolling the fingers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Purcell |first=Edward T. |date=1974 |title=Computer-Controlled Drills for First-Year Russian |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/306437 |journal=The Slavic and East European Journal |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=56–68 |doi=10.2307/306437 |jstor=306437 |issn=0037-6752|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Typewriters were also made for [[East Asian languages]] with thousands of characters, such as [[Chinese typewriter|Chinese]] or [[Japanese typewriter|Japanese]]. They were not easy to operate, but professional typists used them for a long time until the development of electronic word processors and [[laser printer]]s in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Makinen |first=Julie |date=2016-09-03 |title=Before the computer, there was something almost as complex: the Chinese typewriter |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-chinese-typewriter-snap-story.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Typewriter conventions ===
[[File:Typerwriter conventions text example.gif|thumb|This typed page uses a number of typographic conventions stemming from the mechanical limitations of the typewriter: two hyphens in place of an [[em dash]], double [[sentence spacing]], straight [[quotation mark]]s, [[Tab key|tab]] indents for paragraphs, and double [[carriage return]]s between paragraphs]]
A number of typographical conventions stem from the typewriter's characteristics and limitations. For example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did not include keys for the [[en dash]] and the [[em dash]]. To overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one adjacent hyphen to approximate these symbols.<ref>{{cite book |title = The elements of typographic style |edition = third |first = Robert |last = Bringhurst |publisher = Hartley & Marks, Publishers |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0-88179-206-5 |page = 80 |access-date = 10 November 2020 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780881791327/page/80/mode/2up |quote=In typescript, a double hyphen (--) is often used for a long dash. Double hyphens in a typeset document are a sure sign that the type was set by a typist, not a typographer. A typographer will use an em dash, three-quarter em, or en dash, depending on context or personal style. The em dash is the nineteenth-century standard, still prescribed in many editorial style books, but the em dash is too long for use with the best text faces. Like the oversized space between sentences, it belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography.}}</ref> This typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, even though modern computer word processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font type.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Upper and Lower Case Magazine |title=U&lc Online Issue 41.1.1: Top Ten Type Crimes |url=http://www.itcfonts.com/Ulc/4111/TopTenTypeCrimes.htm |access-date=23 March 2010}}</ref>
Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes still used in desktop publishing systems include inserting a [[sentence spacing|double space]] between sentences,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Robin |title=The Mac is not a typewriter: A style manual for creating professional-level type on your Macintosh |publisher=Peachpit Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-201-78263-9 |edition=2nd |location=Berkeley, California |ref=Wil03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Felici |first=James |title=The Complete Manual of Typography: A Guide to Setting Perfect Type |publisher=Peachpit Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-321-12730-3 |location=Berkeley, California |pages=80}}</ref> and the use of the [[typewriter apostrophe]], {{char|'}}, and [[Quotation mark#Typewriters and early computers|straight quotes]], {{char|"}}, as quotation marks and [[prime mark]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Typographic Desk Reference|url= https://archive.org/details/typographicdeskr0000rose|url-access= registration|edition= 1st|last= Rosendorf|first= Theodore|year= 2009|location= New Castle, Delaware|isbn= 978-1-58456-231-3|ref=Ros09}};
{{Cite web |last=Upper and Lower Case Magazine |title=U&lc Online Issue 41.1.1: Top Ten Type Crimes |url=http://www.itcfonts.com/Ulc/4111/TopTenTypeCrimes.htm |access-date=23 March 2010}}; {{cite book |title= Type Rules: The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography|edition= 3rd|last= Strizver|first= Ilene|year= 2010|publisher= John Wiley & Sons|location= New Jersey|isbn= 978-0-470-54251-4|page=199|ref=Str11 }}. Strizver states that "When available, true primes should be used for measurements, but typewriter quotes (not smart quotes) have become the accepted practice in digital typography."</ref> The [[List of proofreader's marks|practice of underlining text in place of italics]] and the use of all capitals to provide emphasis are additional examples of typographical conventions that derived from the limitations of the typewriter keyboard that still carry on today.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Regents of the University of Minnesota |date=18 July 2007 |title=University of Minnesota Style Manual |url=http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/style/copyprep.html#Anchor-Copy-47857 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117122230/http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/style/copyprep.html |archive-date=January 17, 2009 |access-date=12 May 2010 |website=University of Minnesota |publisher=Regents of the University of Minnesota}} This topic is discussed under "Creating Professional-looking Text."; Williams 2003. pps. 31, 33. Another example of the limitation of the typewriter in regard to underlining, was the necessity to underline the titles of books and stand-alone works in Bibliographies—works that would otherwise have been italicized, if that capability existed on the typewriter.</ref>
Many older typewriters did not include a separate key for the numeral {{char|1}} or the exclamation point {{char|!}}, and some even older ones also lacked the numeral zero, {{char|0}}. Typists who trained on these machines learned the habit of using the lowercase letter {{char|l}} ("ell") for the digit {{char|1}}, and the uppercase {{char|O}} ("oh") for the zero. A cents symbol, {{char|¢}} was created by combining ([[Overstrike|over-striking]]) a lower case {{char|c}} with a slash character (typing {{char|c}}, then backspace, then {{char|/}}). Similarly, the exclamation point was created by combining an apostrophe and a period ({{keypress|'|.}} ≈{{char|!}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Truss |first=Lynn |title=Eats, Shoot & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation |publisher=Gotham Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59240-087-4 |location=New York |page=135}}</ref>
=== Terminology repurposed for the computer age <span class="anchor" id="Terminology"></span>===
Some terminology from the typewriter age has survived into the computer era.
* [[backspace]] (BS) – a keystroke that moved the cursor backwards one position (on a typewriter, this moved the physical platen backwards), to enable a character to be overtyped. Originally this was used to combine characters (for example, the sequence {{char|'}}, backspace, {{char|.}} to make {{char|!}}). Subsequently it facilitated "erase and retype" corrections (using [[correction tape]] or [[Correction fluid|fluid]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kelechava |first=Brad |date=2016-05-17 |title=Invention of the Backspace Key |url=https://blog.ansi.org/2016/05/invention-of-backspace-key/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The ANSI Blog |language=en-US}}</ref>) Only the latter concept has survived into the computer age.
* [[carriage return]] (CR) – return to the first column of text. (Most typewriters switched automatically to the next line. In computer systems, "line feed" (see below) is a function that is controlled independently.)<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=The Carriage Return and Line Feed Characters |url=https://danielmiessler.com/study/crlf/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Daniel Miessler |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Cursor (computers)|cursor]] – a marker used to indicate where the next character will be printed. The cursor was originally a term to describe the clear slider on a [[slide rule]];<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stoll |first=Cliff |date=April 2020 |title=When Slide Rules Ruled |url=https://www.physics.wisc.edu/ingersollmuseum/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2020/04/scientificamerican0506-80-WhenSlideRulesRuled.pdf |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Ingersoll Museum}}</ref> on typewriters, it was the paper that moved and the insertion point was fixed.
* [[Cut, copy, and paste|cut and paste]] – taking text, a numerical table, or an image and pasting it into a document. The term originated when such compound documents were created using manual [[paste up]] techniques for typographic [[page layout]]. Actual brushes and paste were later replaced by hot-wax machines equipped with cylinders that applied melted adhesive wax to developed prints of "typeset" copy. This copy was then cut out with knives and rulers, and slid into position on layout sheets on slanting layout tables. After the "copy" had been correctly positioned and squared up using a T-square and set square, it was pressed down with a brayer, or roller. The whole point of the exercise was to create so-called "camera-ready copy" which existed only to be photographed and then printed, usually by [[offset lithography]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-05-23 |title=John Naughton: Log on to an old-time typewriter; now try to cut and paste |url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/may/24/typewriter-versus-wordprocessor-technological-innovation |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>
* [[dead key]] – a key that, when typed, does not advance the typing position, thus allowing another character to be overstruck on top of the original character. This was typically used to combine [[diacritical mark]]s with letters they modified (e.g. ''è'' can be generated by first pressing {{key|`}} and then {{key|e}}). In Europe, where most languages have diacritics, a typical mechanical arrangement meant that hitting the accent key typed the symbol but did not advance the carriage, consequently the next character to be typed 'landed' on the same position. It was this method that carried across to the computer age whereas an alternative method (press the space bar simultaneously) did not.
* [[line feed]] (LF), also called "newline" – Whereas most typewriters rolled the paper forward automatically on a "carriage return), this is an explicit [[control character]] on computer systems that moves the [[Cursor (computers)|cursor]] to the next on-screen line of text.<ref name=":4" /> (But not to the beginning of that line{{snd}} a CR is also needed if that effect is desired.)
* [[Shift key|shift]] – a [[modifier key]] used to type capital letters and other alternate "upper case" characters; when pressed and held down, would shift a typewriter's mechanism to allow a different typebar impression (such as 'D' instead of 'd') to press into the ribbon and print on a page. The concept of a shift key or modifier key was later extended to [[Ctrl]], [[Alt key|Alt]], [[AltGr]] and Super ("Windows" or "Apple") keys on modern computer keyboards. The generalized concept of a shift key reached its apex in the [[MIT]] [[space-cadet keyboard]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Keyboard Design for the LISP Machine |url=http://xahlee.info/kbd/space-cadet_design.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Xah Keyboard Guide}}</ref>
* [[Tabulator key|tab]] (HT), shortened from "horizontal tab" or "tabulator stop" – caused the print position to advance horizontally to the next pre-set "tab stop". This was used for typing lists and tables with vertical columns of numbers or words.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tabs and tab stops |url=https://typographyforlawyers.com/tabs-and-tab-stops.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Typography for Lawyers}}</ref>
** The [[vertical tab]] (VT) control character, named by analogy with HT, was designed for use with early computer [[line printer]]s, and would cause the [[fan-fold paper]] to be fed until the next line's position.
* [[Tty (Unix)|tty]], short for [[teletypewriter]] – used in [[Unix-like]] operating systems to designate a given "terminal".<ref>{{Cite news |title=What is TTY? |url=https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/t/tty.htm |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Computer Hope |language=en}}</ref>
== Social effects ==
[[File:CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Humorous "Get out! Can't you see I'm busy" postcard (1900s)]]
When Remington started marketing typewriters, the company assumed the machine would not be used for composing but for transcribing dictation, and that the person typing would be a woman. The 1800s [[Sholes and Glidden typewriter]] had floral ornamentation on the case.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1876 Sholes, Gidden, Soule invention |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00451/typewriter.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214222817/http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00451/typewriter.htm |archive-date=14 December 2012 |access-date=29 December 2012}}</ref>
During World Wars I and II, increasing numbers of [[Women's roles in the World Wars|women]] were entering the workforce. In the United States, women often started in the professional workplace as [[copy typist]]s. Being a typist was considered the right choice for a "good girl", meaning women who present themselves as being chaste and having good conduct.<ref>Boyer, Kate, and Kim England. "Gender, Work and Technology in the Information Workplace: From Typewriters to ATMs." Social & Cultural Geography 9.3 (2008): 241–256. Web.</ref> According to the 1900 census, 94.9% of stenographers and typists were unmarried women.<ref>Waller, Robert A. "Women and the Typewriter During the First Fifty Years, 1873–1923". Studies in Popular Culture 9.1 (1986): 39–50. Web.</ref> This also led to an increase in schools and classes for typing in order to prepare for future job.{{cn|date=March 2024}} Moreover, the word typewriter also became associated with the women who typed during the timeperiod.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
Questions about morals made a salacious businessman making sexual advances to a female typist into a cliché of office life, appearing in [[vaudeville]] and movies. The "[[Tijuana bible]]s" – adult comic books produced in Mexico for the American market, starting in the 1930s – often featured women typists. In one panel, a businessman in a three-piece suit, ogling his secretary's thigh, says, "Miss Higby, are you ready for—ahem!—er—dictation?"<ref name="ja">[https://newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=all Newyorker.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929165400/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=all |date=2007-09-29 }} Acocella, Joan, "The Typing Life: How writers used to write", ''[[The New Yorker]]'', April 9, 2007, a review of ''The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting'' (Cornell) 2007, by Darren Wershler-Henry</ref>
The typewriter was a useful machine during the censorship era of the Soviet government, starting during the [[Russian Civil War]] (1917–1922). [[Samizdat]] was a form of surreptitious self-publication used when the government was censoring what literature the public could see. The Soviet government signed a [[Soviet Decree|Decree on Press]] which prohibited the publishing of any written work that had not been previously officially reviewed and approved.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-08-25 |title=Decree on the Press |url=http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1917-2/organs-of-the-press/organs-of-the-press-texts/decree-on-the-press/ |access-date=2019-12-09 |website=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History |language=en-US}}</ref> Unapproved work was copied manually, most often on typewriters.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://kula.uvic.ca/ |title=KULA: knowledge creation, dissemination, and preservation studies. |date=2017 |language=en |oclc=1126556820}}</ref> In 1983, a new law required anyone who needed a typewriter to get police permission to buy or keep one. In addition, the owner would have to register a typed sample of all its letters and numbers, to ensure that any illegal literature typed with it could be traced back to its source.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bolintineanu |first1=Alexandra |last2=Thirugnanasampanthan |first2=Jaya |date=2018-11-29 |title=The Typewriter Under the Bed: Introducing Digital Humanities through Banned Books and Endangered Knowledge |journal=KULA: Knowledge Creation, Dissemination, and Preservation Studies |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=22 |doi=10.5334/kula.30 |issn=2398-4112 |doi-access=free|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1d9a/c7bd1eb4b8a3071b4b9dd0ce53996020cecb.pdf }}</ref> The typewriter became increasingly popular as the interest in prohibited books grew.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aleeva |first=Ekaterina |date=2017-07-10 |title=Samizdat: How did people in the Soviet Union circumvent state censorship |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/literature/2017/07/10/samizdat_797635 |access-date=2019-12-09 |website=www.rbth.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Writers with notable associations with typewriters ==
=== Early adopters ===
* [[Henry James]] dictated to a typist.<ref name=ja/>
* [[Mark Twain]] claimed in [[Mark Twain's Autobiography|his autobiography]] that he was the first important writer to present a publisher with a typewritten [[manuscript]], for ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' (1876). Research showed that Twain's memory was incorrect and that the first book submitted in typed form was ''[[Life on the Mississippi]]'' (1883, also by Twain).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The First Typewriter |url=http://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/firsttw.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201140007/http://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/firsttw.html |archive-date=2009-02-01 |access-date=2009-02-16 |publisher=Rehr, Darryl}}</ref>
=== Others ===
[[File:TheFaulknerPortable.jpg|thumb|[[William Faulkner]]'s [[Underwood Typewriter Company|Underwood]] Universal Portable sits in his office at [[Rowan Oak]], which is now maintained by the [[University of Mississippi]] in [[Oxford, Mississippi|Oxford]] as a museum.]]
* [[William S. Burroughs]] wrote in some of his novels – and possibly believed – that "a machine he called the 'Soft Typewriter' was writing our lives, and our books, into existence", according to a book review in ''The New Yorker''. In the [[Naked Lunch (film)|film adaptation]] of his novel ''Naked Lunch'', his typewriter is a living, insect-like entity (voiced by North American actor [[Peter Boretski]]) and actually dictates the book to him.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wershler-Henry|first=Darren Sean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38cd7wS1-RsC&q=burroughs|title=The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting|date=2007|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-4586-6|language=en}}</ref>
* [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] was accustomed to typing from awkward positions: "balancing his typewriter on his attic bed, because there was no room on his desk".<ref>Carpenter, Humphrey (1978). [[J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography]], Unwin Paperbacks p.207. {{ISBN|0 04 928039 2}}</ref>
* [[Jack Kerouac]], a fast typist at 100 words per minute, typed ''[[On the Road]]'' on a roll of paper so he would not be interrupted by having to change the paper. Within two weeks of starting to write ''On the Road'', Kerouac had one single-spaced paragraph, {{convert|120|ft}} long. Some scholars say the scroll was shelf paper; others contend it was a Thermal-fax roll; another theory is that the roll consisted of sheets of architect's paper taped together.<ref name=ja/> Kerouac himself stated that he used {{convert|100|ft|adj=on}} rolls of [[teletype]] paper.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LLpNKo09Xk|title = JACK KEROUAC on THE STEVE ALLEN SHOW with Steve Allen 1959|website = YouTube}}</ref>
* [[Don Marquis]] purposely used the limitations of a typewriter (or more precisely, a particular typist) in his ''[[archy and mehitabel]]'' series of newspaper columns, which were later compiled into a series of books. According to his literary conceit, a [[cockroach]] named "Archy" was a [[Reincarnation|reincarnated]] [[free verse|free-verse]] poet, who would type articles overnight by jumping onto the keys of a manual typewriter. The writings were typed completely in lower case, because of the cockroach's inability to generate the heavy force needed to operate the shift key. The lone exception is the poem "CAPITALS AT LAST" from ''archys life of mehitabel'', written in 1933.
=== Late users ===
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* [[Richard Polt]], a philosophy professor at [[Xavier University]] in Cincinnati who collects typewriters, edits ''ETCetera'', a quarterly magazine about historic writing machines, and is the author of the book ''The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist's Companion for the 21st Century''.<ref name="PoltBook">{{cite book |last1=Polt |first1=Richard |title=The typewriter revolution : a typist's companion for the 21st century |date=2015 |publisher=Countryman Press |location=Woodstock, VT |isbn=978-1581573114}}</ref><ref name="PoltWeb"/>
* [[William Gibson]] used a Hermes 2000 model manual typewriter to write ''[[Neuromancer]]'' and half of ''[[Count Zero]]'' before a mechanical failure and lack of replacement parts forced him to upgrade to an [[Apple IIc]] computer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Blog archive |url=http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2006_10_01_archive.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021032407/http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2006_10_01_archive.asp |archive-date=2007-10-21 |access-date=2008-10-23}}</ref>
* [[Harlan Ellison]] used typewriters for his entire career, and when he was no longer able to have them repaired, learned to do it himself; he repeatedly stated his belief that computers are bad for writing, maintaining that "Art is not supposed to be easier!"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Harlan Ellison Webderland: Interview |url=http://harlanellison.com/interview.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308110553/http://www.harlanellison.com/interview.htm |archive-date=2012-03-08 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Harlanellison.com}}</ref>
* [[Cormac McCarthy]] wrote his novels on an [[Olivetti Lettera 32]] typewriter until his death. In 2009, the Lettera he obtained from a pawn shop in 1963, on which nearly all his novels and screenplays have been written, was auctioned for charity at [[Christie's]] for US$254,500;<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kennedy |first=Randy |date=2009-12-04 |title=Cormac McCarthy's Typewriter Brings $254,500 at Auction – ArtsBeat Blog – NYTimes.com |publisher=Artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com |url=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/04/cormac-mccarthys-typewriter-brings-254500-at-auction/ |url-status=live |access-date=2010-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110528153549/http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/04/cormac-mccarthys-typewriter-brings-254500-at-auction/ |archive-date=2011-05-28}}</ref> McCarthy obtained an identical replacement for $20 to continue writing on.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Patricia Cohen |date=November 30, 2009 |title=No Country for Old Typewriters: A Well-Used One Heads to Auction |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/books/01typewriter.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904124940/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/books/01typewriter.html |archive-date=September 4, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Joiner">{{cite web |last1=Joiner |first1=James |title=The Hidden World of the Typewriter |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/09/the-hidden-world-of-the-typewriter/279523/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=2022-01-23 |language=en |date=11 September 2013}}</ref>
* [[Will Self]] explains why he uses a manual typewriter: "I think the computer user does their thinking on the screen, and the non-computer user is compelled, because he or she has to retype a whole text, to do a lot more thinking in the head."<ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-05-30 |title=Why typewriters beat computers |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7427237.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804050059/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7427237.stm |archive-date=2017-08-04}}</ref>
* [[Ted Kaczynski]] (the "Unabomber") infamously used two old manual typewriters to write his polemic essays and messages.<ref name="Joiner"/>
* Actor [[Tom Hanks]] uses and collects manual typewriters.<ref name="NY Times typewriter">{{Cite news |last=Hanks |first=Tom |title=I Am TOM. I Like to TYPE. Hear That? |work=The New York Times |date=3 August 2013 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/04/opinion/sunday/i-am-tom-i-like-to-type-hear-that.html |access-date=March 9, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Joiner"/> To control the size of his collection, he gifts autographed machines to appreciative fans and repair shops around the world.<ref name="Patkin">{{cite web |last1=Patkin |first1=Abby |title=Tom Hanks just sent a typewriter to an Arlington shop. Here's why. |url=https://www.boston.com/news/off-beat/2023/04/05/tom-hanks-sent-typewriter-arlington-shop/ |website=www.boston.com |publisher=Boston Globe Media Partners LLC |access-date=2023-04-05 |date=April 5, 2023}}</ref>
* Historian [[David McCullough]] used a Royal typewriter to compose his books.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1999 |title=The Art of Biography No. 2 |language=en |volume=Fall 1999 |issue=152 |url=https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/894/the-art-of-biography-no-2-david-mccullough |access-date=2023-12-14 |issn=0031-2037}}</ref>
* Biographer [[Robert Caro]] has used various models of the Smith Corona Electra 210 to write his biographies of [[Robert Moses]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Lyndon Johnson]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Helfand |first=Zach |date=2021-10-22 |title=Why Robert Caro Now Has Only Ten Typewriters |language=en-US |work=The New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/11/01/why-robert-caro-now-has-only-ten-typewriters |access-date=2023-12-14 |issn=0028-792X}}</ref>
<!-- Editors: Please try to keep this section sorted in roughly chronological order -->
== Typewriters in popular culture ==
=== In music ===
<!-- Editors: Please try to keep this section sorted in roughly chronological order -->
* [[Erik Satie]]'s 1917 score for the ballet [[Parade (ballet)|''Parade'']] includes a "''Mach. à écrire"'' as a percussion instrument, along with (elsewhere) a [[roulette wheel]] and a pistol.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_(orch._score).pdf |url=http://conquest.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/d/db/IMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_(orch._score).pdf |website=International Music Score Library Project}}</ref>
* The composer [[Leroy Anderson]] wrote ''[[The Typewriter]]'' (1950) for orchestra and typewriter, and it has since been used as the theme for numerous radio programs. The solo instrument is a real typewriter played by a percussionist. The piece was later made famous by comedian [[Jerry Lewis]] as part of his regular routine both on screen and stage, most notably in the 1963 film ''[[Who's Minding the Store?]]''.
* The [[Boston Typewriter Orchestra]] (BTO), a comedic musical percussion group, has performed at numerous art festivals, clubs, and parties since 2004.<ref name="NPR-BTO">{{Cite news |last=Hurley |first=Sean |title=Boston Orchestra Makes Typewriters Sing |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95578403 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308223426/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95578403 |archive-date=2012-03-08 |access-date=2012-03-16 |newspaper=NPR.org |publisher=National Public Radio}}</ref><ref name="BTO">{{Cite web |title=The Boston Typewriter Orchestra |url=http://www.bostontypewriterorchestra.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404062611/http://www.bostontypewriterorchestra.com/ |archive-date=2012-04-04 |access-date=2012-03-16 |publisher=Wordpress}}</ref>
* South Korean improviser Ryu Hankil frequently performs on typewriters, most prominently in his 2009 album ''Becoming Typewriter''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-03-10 |title=Becoming Typewriter : Ryu Hankil : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive |url=https://archive.org/details/BecomingTypewriter |access-date=2013-09-12}}</ref>
<!-- Editors: Please try to keep this section sorted in roughly chronological order -->
=== Other ===
<!-- Editors: Please try to keep this section sorted in roughly chronological order -->
[[File:Nationale kampioenschap typen in Den Haag, Bestanddeelnr 906-7443.jpg|thumb|Typewriting speed competition <br>(The Hague, 1954)]]
* The 2012 French comedy movie ''[[Populaire (film)|Populaire]]'', starring Romain Duris and Déborah François, centers on a young secretary in the 1950s striving to win typewriting speed competitions.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dehn |first=Georgia |date=27 May 2013 |title=Déborah François interview for Populaire: 'Acting felt like a fantasy' |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10076969/Deborah-Francois-interview-for-Populaire-Acting-felt-like-a-fantasy.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10076969/Deborah-Francois-interview-for-Populaire-Acting-felt-like-a-fantasy.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |accessdate=1 June 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* The manga (2015–2020) and anime (2018) ''[[Violet Evergarden]]'' series follows a disabled war veteran who learns to type because her handwriting has been impaired, and soon she becomes a popular typist.
* ''[[California Typewriter]]'', a 2016 documentary film, investigates the culture of typewriter enthusiasts, including an [[eponymous]] repair store in Berkeley, California.
<!-- Editors: Please try to keep this section sorted in roughly chronological order -->
== Forensic examination ==
Typewritten documents may be examined by [[questioned document examination|forensic document examiners]]. This is done primarily to determine 1) the make and/or model of the typewriter used to produce a document, or 2) whether or not a particular suspect typewriter might have been used to produce a document.<ref name=Kelly>{{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Mary W. |title=Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents, Second Edition (Forensic and Police Science Series) |publisher=CRC Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8493-2044-6 |edition=2nd |location=Boca Raton, FL |pages=177–189 |chapter=Typewriters}}</ref>
The determination of a make and/or model of typewriter is a 'classification' problem and several systems have been developed for this purpose.<ref name=Kelly /> These include the original Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version)<ref>Haas, Josef. (1972), "ATLAS der Schreibmaschinenschrift, PICA".</ref> and (Non-Pica version)<ref>Haas, Josef and Bernhard Haas. (1985), "ATLAS der Schreibmaschinenschrift, Non-PICA".</ref> and the TYPE system developed by Philip Bouffard,<ref>Bouffard, P.D. (1992), A PC-Based Typewriter Typestyle Classification System Standard, presented at the American Academy of Forensic Sciences meeting, New Orleans, LA.</ref> the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]]'s Termatrex Typewriter classification system,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hodgins |first=Cpl. J.H. |date=January 1963 |title=A Punchcard System for Identification of Typescript |journal=Journal of Forensic Sciences |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=68–81}}</ref> and [[Interpol]]'s typewriter classification system,<ref>Interpol (1969) "System for Identification of Typewriter Makes Using the Card Index", ICPO-Interpol</ref> among others.<ref name=Kelly />
The earliest reference in fictional literature to the potential identification of a typewriter as having produced a document was by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote the Sherlock Holmes short story "[[A Case of Identity]]" in 1891.<ref name="crown">{{Cite journal |last=Crown |first=David A. |date=March 1967 |title=Landmarks in Typewriting Identification |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5434&context=jclc |journal=Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=105–111 |doi=10.2307/1141378 |jstor=1141378 |quote=The earliest known reference to the identification potential of typewriting, curiously enough, appears in 'A Case of Identity', a Sherlock Holmes story by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle...}}</ref>
In non-fiction, the first [[forensic document examination|document examiner]]<ref name=crown /> to describe how a typewriter might be identified was William E. Hagan who wrote, in 1894, "All typewriter machines, even when using the same kind of type, become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hagan |first=William E. |url=https://archive.org/details/disputedhandwrit00haga |title=Disputed Handwriting |publisher=Banks & Brothers |year=1894 |location=Albany, NY |page=[https://archive.org/details/disputedhandwrit00haga/page/203 203] |chapter=Chapter VIII}}</ref> Other early discussions of the topic were provided by [[Albert S. Osborn|A. S. Osborn]] in his 1908 treatise, ''Typewriting as Evidence'',<ref>{{Citation |last=Osborn |first=Albert S. |year=1908 |title=Typewriting as Evidence |publisher=The Genesee Press |page=23 |place=Rochester, NY}}</ref> and again in his 1929 textbook, ''Questioned Documents''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Osborn |first=Albert S. |title=Questioned Documents |publisher=Patterson Smith |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-87585-207-2 |edition=2nd |location=Montclair, NJ |page=1042 |chapter=Questioned Typewriting |orig-year=1929}}</ref>
A modern description of the examination procedure is laid out in ASTM Standard E2494-08 (Standard Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items).<ref name="astm_TW">[http://www.astm.org/ ASTM International] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060331053643/http://www.astm.org/ |date=2006-03-31 }}, These guides are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences and the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E30.02 on Questioned Documents. Copies of ASTM Standards can be obtained directly from [[ASTM International]].</ref>
Typewriter examination was used in the [[Leopold and Loeb]] and [[Alger Hiss]] cases.
In the [[Eastern Bloc]], typewriters (together with [[printing press]]es, [[copy machine]]s, and later [[printer (computing)|computer printers]]) were a controlled technology, with [[secret police]] in charge of maintaining records of the typewriters and their owners.{{Cn|date=January 2024}} In the [[Soviet Union]], the [[First Department]] of each organization sent data on organization's typewriters to the [[KGB]].{{Cn|date=January 2024}} This posed a significant risk for dissidents and [[samizdat]] authors. In [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]], according to State Council Decree No. 98 of March 28, 1983, owning a typewriter, both by businesses or by private persons, was subject to an approval given by the local police authorities. People previously convicted of any crime or those who because of their behaviour were considered to be "a danger to public order or to the security of the state" were refused approval. In addition, once a year, typewriter owners had to take the typewriter to the local police station, where they would be asked to type a sample of all the typewriter's characters. It was also forbidden to borrow, lend, or repair typewriters other than at the places that had been authorized by the police.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Betea |first=Lavinia |date=February 13, 2009 |title=La Miliţie cu maşina de scris |url=http://jurnalul.ro/scinteia/special/la-militie-cu-masina-de-scris-319045.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904043133/http://jurnalul.ro/scinteia/special/la-militie-cu-masina-de-scris-319045.html |archive-date=September 4, 2015 |access-date=August 24, 2014 |publisher=jurnalul.ro |language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=1986 |title=News & Notes: The Great Rumanian Typewriter Decree |journal=[[Index on Censorship]] |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=2–3 |doi=10.1080/03064228608534006|s2cid=220951010 }}</ref>
==Collections==
Public and private collections of typewriters exist around the world, including:<ref name="Ways">{{cite web |last1=Ways |first1=Mark |title=10 Typewriter Museums You Should Visit |url=https://www.typinglounge.com/typewriter-museums |website=Typing Lounge |access-date=2022-01-23 |date=October 28, 2021}}</ref>
* Schreibmaschinenmuseum Peter Mitterhofer (Parcines, Italy)<ref>{{cite web |title=Schreib Maschinen Museum |url=https://www.schreibmaschinenmuseum.com/en/ |website=Typewritermuseum |access-date=2022-01-23}}</ref>
* Museo della Macchina da Scrivere (Milan, Italy)<ref>{{cite web |title=Museo della Macchina da Scrivere |url=https://www.museodellamacchinadascrivere.org |website=Museo della macchina da scrivere |access-date=2022-01-23 |language=it}}</ref>
* Liverpool Typewriter Museum (Liverpool, England)
*[[Museum of Printing#Collection|Museum of Printing]] – MoP (Haverhill, Massachusetts, US)
* Chestnut Ridge Typewriter Museum (Fairmont, West Virginia, US)
* Technical Museum of the Empordà (Figueres, Girona, Spain)
* Musée de la machine à écrire (Lausanne, Switzerland)<ref>{{cite web |title=Musée de la Machine à Ecrire |url=https://www.perrier-sa.ch/musee/ |website=Musée de la machine à écrire |publisher=Perrier Machines de Bureau, Lausanne |access-date=2022-01-23 |language=fr}}</ref>
* Lu Hanbin Typewriter Museum Shanghai (Shanghai, China)
* Wattens Typewriter Museum (Wattens, Austria)
* German Typewriter Museum (Bayreuth, Germany)
* [[Tayfun Talipoğlu Typewriter Museum]] (Odunpazarı, Eskişehir, Turkey)
Several online-only virtual museums collect and display information about typewriters and their history:
* Virtual Typewriter Museum<ref>{{cite web |last=Robert |first=Paul |title=The Virtual Typewriter Museum |url=http://www.typewritermuseum.org/index.html |access-date=2022-01-23}}</ref>
* Chuck & Rich's Antique Typewriter Website
* Mr. Martin's Typewriter Museum<ref>{{cite web |title=Typewriter Museum |url=http://www.mrmartinweb.com/type.htm |website=www.mrmartinweb.com |access-date=2022-01-23}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center">
1864 Schreibmaschine Peter Mitterhofer.jpg|Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter
Skrivekugle 1870.jpg|[[Hansen Writing Ball]], invented in 1865 (1870 model)
TypewriterPatent1868.jpg|1868 [[patent drawing]] for the Sholes, Glidden, and Soule typewriter
Hammond 1B typewriter.png|Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881
1910s typewriter.jpg|Hammond 1B, as used by a newspaper office in [[Saskatoon]] around 1910
Quartermaster Corps soldiers in typewriter repair shop at Tours, France, 1919 (29992301794).jpg|US Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919
Typewriters.jpg|Typebars in a 1920s typewriter
Chinese typewriter.jpg|[[Chinese typewriter]] produced by [[Shuangge]], with 2,450 characters
Japanese typewriter SH-280.jpg|[[Japanese typewriter]] SH-280, a small machine with 2,268 characters
Typemachine binnenkant.JPG|[[:commons:Category:Hermes typewriters|Hermes 3000 typewriter]]
1920s Underwood SE layout.JPG|1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout
Chinese typewriter at Deutsche Technikmuseum.jpg|Chinese typewriter at ''Deutsches Technikmuseum''
MEK II-327.jpg|typewriter robotron S 1001 from [[VEB Robotron]]-Elektronik at the [[East Germany|GDR]], this sample is owned by the [[Museum Europäischer Kulturen|MEK]]
ماشین تحریر مظفر الدین شاه قاجار.jpg|Personal typewriter of [[Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar]], the fifth Qajar king of Persia (Iran), made in late 19th century
Olivetti Studio 45 Green Typewriter.jpg|An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter
</gallery>
== See also ==
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Chorded keyboard]]
* [[Computer keyboard]]
* [[Duplicating machines]]
* [[Friden Flexowriter]]
* [[JOHNNIAC]]
* [[Letter (alphabet)]]
* [[Projection keyboard]]
* [[Teletype Model 33]]
* [[Typeface]]
* [[Typescript (manuscript)|Typescript]]
* [[Typewriter desk]]
* [[UNIVAC 1102]]
}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
=== Patents ===
* {{US patent|79265|US79265}} – Improvement in Type-Writing Machines (the patent that laid the basis for the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer)
* {{US patent|349026|US349026}} – typewriter ribbon, by George K. Anderson of Memphis, Tennessee.
== Further reading ==
{{lacking ISBN|date=April 2023}}
* Adler, M.H. (1973). ''The Writing Machine: A History of the Typewriter''. Allen and Unwin.
* Beeching, Wilfred A. (1974). ''Century of the Typewriter''. St. Martin's Press. pp. 276 Beeching was the Director of the British Typewriter Museum.
* Casillo, Anthony (2017), ''Typewriters: Iconic Machines from the Golden Age of Mechanical Writing''. Chronical Books. pp. 208 Foreword by Tom Hanks.
*{{cite book |last1=Polt |first1=Richard |title=The typewriter revolution : a typist's companion for the 21st century |date=2015 |publisher=Countryman Press |location=Woodstock, VT |isbn=978-1581573114}}
*{{Cite book |last=Wichary |first=Marcin |title=Shift Happens |publisher=Penmor |year=2023 |location=Lewiston, Maine |url=https://shifthappens.site/}}
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.eclectisaurus.com/tmtypewritermuseum.html The Eclectisaurus online Museum of Typewriters by manufacturers from Adler to Voss.]
* {{YouTube|id=2y3HK9yTqYo|title=Most Definitely My Type}} Video showcasing historical typewriters, with soundtrack by [[Boston Typewriter Orchestra]]
* [http://www.maquinasantigasdeescrever.com.br/historia.html Oliveira Typewriter (em português)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090126014136/http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/etc.html Early Typewriter Collectors' Association]
* [http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/ The Classic Typewriter Page]
=== Revival ===
* [http://qctimes.com/news/opinion/editorial/columnists/bill-wundram/article_03dd1536-4423-11de-a7be-001cc4c002e0.html Ding, click clack – typewriter is back] –''[[Quad-City Times]]'', May 18, 2009
* [http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2011/12/19/Typewriters-experience-a-comeback/UPI-30661324327372/ Typewriters experience a comeback] – [[United Press International]], Dec. 19, 2011
* [http://typewritermovie.com/ Documentary Film – The Typewriter (In the 21st Century)] – 2012
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/10173645/Kremlin-returns-to-typewriters-to-avoid-computer-leaks.html Kremlin returns to typewriters to avoid computer leaks] – ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', July 11, 2013
* [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/15/germany-typewriters-espionage-nsa-spying-surveillance Germany 'may revert to typewriters' to counter hi-tech espionage] – ''[[The Guardian]]'', July 15, 2014
{{Typewriter}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Typewriters|*]]
[[Category:Text]]
[[Category:1873 introductions]]
[[Category:Italian inventions]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:19th-century inventions]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | 'Name: Khanyisile
Surname: Billy
KwaMfundo high school
Subject: Geography
Assignment
How the latitude and altitude affects climate?
Latitude and altitude both play important roles in edetermining the climate of a region, including South Africa
1.Latitude : South Africa is allocated in the Southern hemisphere and spans a wide range of latitudes from about 2.2 5 's to 35's.The latitude of a region affects the amount of solar energy it receives, which in turn influences its climate.
The higher latitudes in South Africa, such as areas closer to 35's,experience cooler temperatures compared to regions closer to the equator. This is because the Sun's rays are more spread out a higher latitudes, resulting in less direction heating.
The latitude also influences the length of daylight hours, with longer days in summer and shorter days in winter. This variation in day light can affect the temperature and weather patterns in different regions of South Africa
== History ==
[[File:1864 Schreibmaschine Peter Mitterhofer.jpg|thumb|Peter Mitterhofer's typewriter prototype (1864)]]
Although many modern typewriters have one of several similar designs, their invention was incremental, developed by numerous inventors working independently or in competition with each other over a series of decades. As with the [[automobile]], the telephone, and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], several people contributed insights and inventions that eventually resulted in ever more commercially successful instruments. Historians have estimated that some form of the typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a workable design.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Acocella |first=Joan |date=April 9, 2007 |title=The Typing Life: How writers used to write |url=https://newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=1 |url-status=live |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011413/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=1 |archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref>
Some early typing instruments include:
* In 1575, an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazetto, invented the {{lang|it|scrittura tattile}}, a machine to impress letters in papers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scrittura | publisher=Museo dinamico della tecnologia Adriano Olivetti |url=http://museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org/scrittura/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621081930/http://museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org/scrittura/ |archive-date=2017-06-21 |access-date=2017-07-21 |website=museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org |language=it-IT}}</ref>
* In 1714, [[Henry Mill]] obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. The patent shows that this machine was created: "[he] hath by his great study and paines & expence invented and brought to perfection an artificial machine or method for impressing or transcribing of letters, one after another, as in writing, whereby all writing whatsoever may be engrossed in paper or parchment so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print; that the said machine or method may be of great use in settlements and public records, the impression being deeper and more lasting than any other writing, and not to be erased or counterfeited without manifest discovery."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Henry Mill Patents |url=http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill_Henry/MillHenryPatents.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121128013806/http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill_Henry/MillHenryPatents.htm |archive-date=2012-11-28 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Todayinsci.com}}</ref>
* In 1802, Italian Agostino Fantoni developed a particular typewriter to enable his [[blindness|blind]] sister to write.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, The bases of digital computers, typewriter and computer keyboard |url=http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/keyboard.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905195941/http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/keyboard.html |archive-date=2016-09-05 |access-date=2016-09-19 |website=history-computer.com}}</ref>
* Between 1801 and 1808, Italian [[Pellegrino Turri]] invented a typewriter for his blind friend Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Italian Inventors and their Inventions |url=http://www.yourguidetoitaly.com/italian-inventors.html |access-date=2011-01-25 |publisher=YourGuideToItaly.com}}</ref>
* In 1823, Italian Pietro Conti da Cilavegna invented a new model of the typewriter, the {{lang|it|tachigrafo}}, also known as {{lang|it|tachitipo}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gianfrancesco Rambelli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om_KVDRCK8EC&pg=PA150 |title=Intorno invenzioni e scoperte italiane |date=1844 |publisher=Tipografia Vincenzi e Rossi |location=Modena |page=150 |language=it}}</ref>
* In 1829, American [[William Austin Burt]] patented a machine called the "[[Typographer (typewriter)|Typographer]]" which, in common with many other early machines, is listed as the "first typewriter". The London [[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]] describes it merely as "the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented", but even that claim may be excessive since Turri's invention pre-dates it.<ref>{{Cite book |title=William Austin Burt's Typographer |publisher=Science Museum |year=1829}}</ref>
By the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need to mechanize the writing process. [[Stenographer]]s and [[telegraph]]ers could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, whereas a writer with a pen was limited to a maximum of 30 words per minute (the 1853 speed record).<ref name="Utterback">{{Cite book |last=Utterback |first=James M. Utterback |title=Mastering The Dynamics Of Innovation|edition=2nd|publisher=Harvard Business Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-87584-740-5}}</ref>
[[Image:Olivetti-Valentine.jpg|thumb|The 1969 [[Olivetti Valentine]] typewriter, featured in the permanent collections of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[Museum of Modern Art]], and [[Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum]] in New York;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ettore Sottsass, Perry King. Valentine Portable Typewriter. 1968 |url=https://www.moma.org/collection/works/4576 |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=The Museum of Modern Art}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Valentine, Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum |url=https://www.si.edu/es/object/valentine%3Achndm_1986-99-40-a_b |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=Smithsonian Institution}}</ref> London's [[Design Museum]] and [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title= ETTORE SOTTSASS |date= 19 May 2016 |url=https://designmuseum.org/designers/ettore-sottsass |publisher=[[Design Museum]], London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Valentine |url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O146042/valentine-typewriter-sottsass-ettore/ |publisher=[[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |date=February 25, 2008}}</ref>]]
[[File:Collections in Motion- Valentine Typewriter.webm|thumb|Video the [[Olivetti Valentine|Olivetti ''Valentine'']] typewriter in use.]]
From 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Typewriters |url=https://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |website=Early Office Museum |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
* American [[Charles Thurber (inventor)|Charles Thurber]] developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was created as an aid to blind people, such as the 1845 [[Charles Thurber (inventor)#Career|Chirographer]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thurber's Chirographer – Scientific American |url=https://todayinsci.com/Events/Typewriter/Chirographer-SciAm.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327043255/http://todayinsci.com/Events/Typewriter/Chirographer-SciAm.htm |archive-date=2015-03-27 |access-date=2017-01-20 |website=todayinsci.com}}</ref>
* In 1855, the Italian [[Giuseppe Ravizza]] created a prototype typewriter called ''Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti'' ("Scribe [[harpsichord]], or machine for writing with keys"). It was an advanced machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cembalo Scrivano – macchina per scrivere – Industria, manifattura, artigianato |url=https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/scienza-tecnologia/schede/ST120-00001/ |website=Lombardia Beni Culturali |access-date=27 April 2022 |language=IT}}</ref>
* In 1861, Father Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood and knives. In that same year, the Brazilian emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil|D. Pedro II]], presented a gold medal to Father Azevedo for this invention. Many Brazilian people, as well as the Brazilian federal government recognize Fr. Azevedo as the inventor of the typewriter, a claim that has been the subject of some controversy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Michael |title=Antique typewriters: from Creed to QWERTY |publisher=Schiffer Pub. |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7643-0132-2 |location=Atglen, Pa.}}</ref>
* In 1865, [[John Jonathon Pratt]], of [[Centre, Alabama]] (US), built a machine called the ''Pterotype'' which appeared in an 1867 ''[[Scientific American]]'' article<ref>{{Cite news |date=1867-07-06 |title=Type Writing Machine. |volume=17 |page=3 |work=[[Scientific American]] |issue=1 |location=New York |url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=%2Fmoa%2Fscia%2Fscia1017%2F&tif=00011.TIF&cite=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DABF2204-1017-3 |access-date=2009-01-14 |series=New}}</ref> and inspired other inventors.
* Between 1864 and 1867, {{Interlanguage link|Peter Mitterhofer|de}}, a carpenter from [[South Tyrol]] (then part of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]]) developed several models and a fully functioning prototype typewriter in 1867.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wN4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA751 |title=This is How Some of the World's Familiar Inventions Looked at the Time of Birth |magazine=Popular Mechanics |date=May 1929 |page=751}}</ref>
*By 1900, notable typewriter manufacturers included [[E. Remington and Sons]], [[IBM]], [[Godrej Group|Godrej]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=The archives times – March – April 2013 – Lost and found, a 1984 photo revives those times |publisher=Godrej archives |url=http://www.archives.godrej.com/assets/pdf/The_Archives_Times_Mar_Apr_2013.pdf |access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref> [[Imperial Typewriter Company]], [[Oliver Typewriter Company]], [[Olivetti]], [[Royal Typewriter Company]], [[Smith Corona]], [[Underwood Typewriter Company]], [[Facit]], [[Adler (cars and motorcycle)|Adler]], and <!--{{Ill|de|Olympia Werke}}-->[[Olympia-Werke]].<ref>Silver Reed{{Cite web |title=From behind the scenes – Godrej Prima and the Stenographers handbook |url=http://www.archives.godrej.com/assets/pdf/Steno's_Handbook.pdf |access-date=18 March 2019 |website=www.archives.godrej.com |publisher=Godrej archives}}</ref>
After the market had matured under the market dominance of large companies from Britain, Europe and the United States — but before the advent of daisywheel and electonic machines — the typewriter market faced strong competition from less expensive typewriters from Asia, including [[Brother Industries]] and [[Silver Seiko Ltd.]] of Japan.
[[File:TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG|alt=|thumb|An Elliott-Fisher book typewriter on display at the [[Historic Archive and Museum of Mining]] in [[Pachuca]], Mexico]]
=== Hansen Writing Ball ===
{{Main|Hansen Writing Ball}}
[[File:Malling Hansen,1867, Dänemark.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Hansen Writing Ball]] was the first typewriter manufactured commercially (1870)]]
In 1865, Rev. [[Rasmus Malling-Hansen]] of [[Denmark]] invented the [[Hansen Writing Ball]], which went into commercial production in 1870 and was the first commercially sold typewriter. It was a success in Europe and was reported as being used in offices on the European continent as late as 1909.<ref name="Mares">{{Cite book |last=Mares |first=G. C. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201721 |title=The History of the Typewriter |year=1909 |publisher=Guilbert Pitman |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201721/page/n234 230]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Office Museum |url=http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102201621/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |archive-date=2 January 2014 |access-date=1 December 2013}}</ref>
Malling-Hansen used a [[solenoid]] escapement to return the carriage on some of his models, which makes him a candidate for the title of inventor of the first "electric" typewriter.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Rasmus Malling-Hansen Invents the Hansen Writing Ball, the First Commercially Produced Typewriter |url=https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=5383 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=History of Information}}</ref>
The Hansen Writing Ball was produced with only upper-case characters. The Writing Ball was a template for inventor [[Frank Haven Hall]] to create a derivative that would produce letter prints cheaper and faster.<ref name="Devil">{{Cite book |last=Larson |first=Erik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJp22rZDOZQC |title=The Devil in the White City: A Saga of Magic and Murder at the Fair that Changed America |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4000-7631-4 |page=291 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJp22rZDOZQC |archive-date=2018-06-26 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="3lives">{{Cite journal |last=Hendrickson, Walter B. |year=1956 |title=The Three Lives of Frank H. Hall |url=http://dig.lib.niu.edu/ISHS/ishs-1956autumn/ishs-1956autumn-271.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society |publisher=University of Illinois Press |volume=49 |issue=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806034158/http://dig.lib.niu.edu/ISHS/ishs-1956autumn/ishs-1956autumn-271.pdf |archive-date=2010-08-06}}</ref><ref name="Museum">{{Cite web |last=Anonymous |date=24 April 2011 |title=Hall Braille Writer |url=http://www.aph.org/museum/braillewriters/1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427203920/http://www.aph.org/museum/braillewriters/1.html |archive-date=27 April 2012 |access-date=29 February 2012 |publisher=American Printing House for the Blind, Inc.}}</ref>
Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter further through the 1870s and 1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the same. On the first model of the writing ball from 1870, the paper was attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was replaced by a carriage, moving beneath the writing head. Then, in 1875, the well-known "tall model" was patented, which was the first of the writing balls that worked without electricity. Malling-Hansen attended the world exhibitions in [[Vienna]] in 1873 and Paris in 1878 and he received the first-prize for his invention at both exhibitions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Otto Burghagen |title=Die Schreibmaschine. Illustrierte Beschreibung aller gangbaren Schreibmaschinen nebst gründlicher Anleitung zum Arbeiten auf sämtlichen Systemen |year=1898}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dieter Eberwein |title=Nietzsches Schreibkugel. Ein Blick auf Nietzsches Schreibmaschinenzeit durch die Restauration der Schreibkugel. Eberwein-Typoskriptverlag |publisher=Schauenburg 2005.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Johanne Agerskov |title=''Hvem er Skrivekuglens Opfinder?'' |year=1925}}</ref>
=== Sholes and Glidden typewriter ===
{{Main|Sholes and Glidden typewriter}}
[[File:Sholes typewriter.jpg|thumb|upright|Prototype of the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, the first commercially successful typewriter, and the first with a QWERTY keyboard (1873)]]
The first typewriter to be commercially successful was patented in 1868 by Americans [[Christopher Latham Sholes]], [[Frank Haven Hall]], [[Carlos Glidden]] and [[Samuel W. Soule]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 23, 1868 |title=Drawing for a Typewriter |url=https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/drawing-for-a-typewriter |website=docsteach.org |<!--original publisher-->publisher=Records of the Patent and Trademark Office, Record Group 241.}}</ref> although Sholes soon disowned the machine and refused to use or even recommend it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jocher |first1=Katharine |last2=Bliven |first2=Bruce |year=1954 |title=Reviewed work: The Typewriter and the Men Who Made It., Richard N. Current; the Wonderful Writing Machine., Bruce Bliven, Jr |journal=Social Forces |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=197–198 |doi=10.2307/2573562 |jstor=2573562}}</ref> The working prototype was made by clock-maker and machinist Matthias Schwalbach.<ref name=WCH>{{Cite web |title=First Practical Typewriter |date=March 22, 2007 |access-date=25 April 2021 |publisher=Wisconsin Historical Society |url=https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/Records/Article/CS2697}}</ref> Hall, Glidden and Soule sold their shares in the patent (US 79,265) to Densmore and Sholes,<ref name=Current /> who made an agreement with [[E. Remington and Sons]] (then famous as a manufacturer of [[sewing machine]]s) to commercialize the machine as the ''[[Sholes and Glidden typewriter|Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer]]''.<ref name=WCH /> This was the origin of the term ''typewriter''.
Remington began production of its first typewriter on March 1, 1873, in [[Ilion, New York]]. It had a [[QWERTY]] keyboard layout, which, because of the machine's success, was slowly adopted by other typewriter manufacturers. As with most other early typewriters, because the '''typebars''' strike upwards, the typist could not see the characters as they were typed.<ref name=Current>{{cite journal | last=Current |first=Richard N. |title=The Original Typewriter Enterprise 1867–1873 |journal=The Wisconsin Magazine of History |volume= 32 |number= 4 | year= 1949 |pages= 391–407 |jstor=4632060 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4632060 | access-date=25 April 2021}}</ref>
=== Index typewriter ===
[[File:Hall 1 typewriter, 1881 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Hall 1 typewriter, 1881 - The first index typewriter]]
[[File:Columbia 2 typewriter, 1886 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Columbia 2 typewriter, 1886 - Early index typewriter with proportional spacing]]
[[File:Victor typewriter, 1889 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Victor typewriter, 1889 - The first successful typewriter to use a daisy wheel]]
[[File:Mignon Mod.4,Bj.1924.jpg|thumb|right|A Mignon Model 4 index typewriter from 1924]]
The index typewriter came into the market in the early 1880s.<ref name="EOM">{{Cite web |title=Antique Index Typewriters |url=http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters_index.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702212611/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters_index.htm |archive-date=2 July 2016 |access-date=13 March 2017 |website=Early Office Museum}}</ref> The index typewriter uses a pointer or stylus to choose a letter from an index. The pointer is mechanically linked so that the letter chosen could then be printed, most often by the activation of a lever.<ref name=":1" />
The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard type machines, they were mechanically simpler and lighter. They were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers and, because they could be produced more cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to produce small quantities of typed correspondence.<ref name="EOM"/>
For example, the Simplex Typewriter Company made index typewriters for 1/40 the price of a Remington typewriter.<ref name="PoltWeb">{{cite web |first=Richard |last=Polt |website=The Classic Typewriter Page |url=https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/simplex.html |title=Simplex |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606050123/https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/simplex.html |archive-date=6 June 2021 }}.</ref>
The index typewriter's niche appeal however soon disappeared, as on the one hand new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more portable and on the other refurbished second-hand machines began to become available.<ref name="EOM"/> The last widely available western index machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by [[AEG (German company)|AEG]] which was produced until 1934. Considered one of the very best of the index typewriters, part of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured both interchangeable indexes and [[Sort (typesetting)|type]],<ref name="Mignon2">{{Cite web |title=The Mignon 2 |url=http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/brands/index.php3?machine=indexmignon2&cat=is |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003035122/http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/brands/index.php3?machine=indexmignon2&cat=is |archive-date=3 October 2016 |access-date=13 March 2017 |website=The Virtual Typewriter Museum}}</ref> allowing the use of different [[font]]s and [[character set]]s, something very few keyboard machines allowed and only at considerable added cost.<ref name="Mignon2"/>
Although pushed out of the market in most of the world by keyboard machines, successful [[Japanese typewriter|Japanese]] and [[Chinese typewriter]]s are of the index type albeit with a very much larger index and number of type elements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mullaney |first=Thomas S. |date=2016 |title=Controlling the Kanjisphere: The Rise of the Sino-Japanese Typewriter and the Birth of CJK |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44166285 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=725–753 |doi=10.1017/S0021911816000577 |jstor=44166285 |issn=0021-9118|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[Embossing tape]] label makers are the most common index typewriters today, and perhaps the most common typewriters of any kind still being manufactured.<ref name="PoltWeb"/>
The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.<ref name="The Remington Type-Writing Machine">{{Cite journal |year=1876 |title=The Remington Type-Writing Machine |journal=Nature |volume=14 |issue=342 |pages=43–44 |bibcode=1876Natur..14...43. |doi=10.1038/014043a0 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Other typewriters ===
* [[File:Hammond 1 typewriter (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Hammond 1 typewriter, 1885]]1884 – Hammond "Ideal" typewriter with case, by Hammond Typewriter Company Limited, United States. Despite an unusual, curved keyboard (see picture in citation), the Hammond became popular because of its superior print quality and changeable typeface. Invented by James Hammond of Boston, Massachusetts in 1880, and commercially released in 1884. The type is carried on a pair of interchangeable rotating sectors, one controlled by each half of the keyboard. A small hammer pushes the paper against the ribbon and type sector to print each character. The mechanism was later adapted to give a straight QWERTY keyboard and proportional spacing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Two Hammond 'Ideal' typewriters, one with case |url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co37725/two-hammond-ideal-typewriters-one-with-case-typewriter |website=Science Museum Group Collection |access-date=27 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[File:Fitch 1 typewriter, 1888 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Fitch 1 typewriter, 1888]]1888 – Fitch typewriter – Made by the Fitch Typewriter Company, Brooklyn, N.Y. and later in the UK with a slightly different look. Operators of the early typewriters had to work "blind": the typed text emerged only after several lines had been completed or the carriage was lifted to look underneath at the page. The Fitch was one of the first machines to allow prompt correction of mistakes with its visible writing; it was said to be the second machine operating on the visible writing system. The typebars were positioned behind the paper and the writing area faced upwards so that the result could be seen instantly. A curved frame kept the emerging paper from obscuring the keyboard, but the Fitch was soon eclipsed by machines in which the paper could be fed more conveniently at the rear.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Fitch typewriter, 1891 {{!}} Science Museum Group Collection|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co38149/fitch-typewriter-1891-typewriters|access-date=2021-11-23|website=collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk|language=en}}</ref>
* [[File:Underwood 1 typewriter, 1896.jpg|thumb|Underwood 1 typewriter, 1896 - The typewriter that would set the design standard for the new century, with three rows of keys, front strike visible and a single shift key. It also had a wonderfuly light and fast typing action.]]1893 – Gardner typewriter. This typewriter, patented by Mr J Gardner in 1893, was an attempt to reduce the size and cost. Although it prints 84 symbols, it has only 14 keys and two change-case keys. Several characters are indicated on each key and the character printed is determined by the position of the case keys, which choose one of six cases.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gardner typewriter, c. 1893 |publisher=Science Museum Group Collection|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co37730/gardner-typewriter-c-1893-typewriter|access-date=2021-11-23|website=collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk|language=en}}</ref>
* 1896 – The "Underwood 1 typewriter, 10" Pica, No. 990". This was the first typewriter with a typing area fully visible to the typist until a key is struck. These features, copied by all subsequent typewriters, allowed the typist to see and if necessary correct the typing as it proceeded. The mechanism was developed in the US by Franz X. Wagner from about 1892 and taken up, in 1895, by John T. Underwood (1857–1937), a producer of office supplies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Underwood 1 Typewriter, 1897 {{!}} Science Museum Group Collection|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co38171/underwood-1-typewriter-1897-typewriter|access-date=2021-11-22|website=collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:A Very Early Typewritten Letter as Part of a Court Case in the Utah Territory, dated 1886.tif|thumb|left|A very early typewritten letter as part of a court case in the Utah Territory, from Appeal #6544, dated 1886.]]
=== Standardization ===
By about 1910, the "manual" or "mechanical" typewriter had reached a somewhat [[Standardization|standardized]] design.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mechanical Typewriter Explained: How Typewriters Work |url=https://www.gadgetexplained.com/2015/11/mechanical-typewriter-explained-how.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Gadget Explained – Reviews Gadgets Electronics Tech}}</ref> There were minor variations from one manufacturer to another, but most typewriters followed the concept that each key was attached to a typebar that had the corresponding letter molded, in reverse, into its striking head. When a key was struck briskly and firmly, the typebar hit a ribbon (usually made of [[ink]]ed [[Cloth|fabric]]), making a printed mark on the paper wrapped around a cylindrical [[platen]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCormack |first=Harry S. |date=2 May 1907 |title=Type-Writing Machine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4x1LAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA385 |journal=Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office |volume=134 |pages=385}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of Typewriters |url=https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/tw-history.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The Classic Typewriter Page}}</ref>
The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.<ref name="The Remington Type-Writing Machine"/> Typewriters for languages written [[right-to-left]] operate in the opposite direction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=The typewriter: an informal history |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_informal.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM Archives |language=en-US}}</ref>
==== Frontstriking ====
In most of the early typewriters, the typebars struck upward against the paper, pressed against the bottom of the [[platen]], so the typist could not see the text as it was typed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Martyn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhUwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA205 |title=Approaches to the History of Written Culture: A World Inscribed |last2=Marquilhas |first2=Rita |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-54136-5 |language=en}}</ref> What was typed was not visible until a carriage return caused it to scroll into view.[[File:Daugherty typewriter (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Daugherty typewriter, 1893]]The difficulty with any other arrangement was ensuring the typebars fell back into place reliably when the key was released. This was eventually achieved with various ingenious mechanical designs and so-called "visible typewriters" which used frontstriking, in which the typebars struck forward against the front side of the platen, became standard.
One of the first was the Daugherty Visible, introduced in 1893, which also introduced the four-bank keyboard that became standard, although the Underwood which came out two years later was the first major typewriter with these features.<ref name="Robert1">{{Cite web |last=Robert |first=Paul |title=Daugherty |url=http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/index.php3?machine=daugh&cat=kf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110729132951/http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/index.php3?machine=daugh&cat=kf |archive-date=July 29, 2011 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |website=Collection |publisher=The Virtual Typewriter Museum}}</ref><ref name="Seaver1">{{Cite web |last=Seaver |first=Alan |year=2011 |title=Daugherty Visible |url=http://machinesoflovinggrace.com/ptf/VisDaughertyPittsburg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511211636/http://machinesoflovinggrace.com/ptf/VisDaughertyPittsburg.html |archive-date=May 11, 2013 |access-date=July 5, 2012 |website=Machines of Loving Grace website |publisher=Alan Seaver}}</ref>
==== Shift key ====
[[File:Remington 2 typewriter (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Remington 2 typewriter, 1878]]
[[File:Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard,_Single-Shift,_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png|thumb|Comparison of full-keyboard, single-shift, and double-shift typewriters in 1911]]
[[File:Hemingway Corona number 3 typewriter.jpg|thumb|Corona #3 typewriter owned by [[Ernest Hemingway]], with a "FIG" shift key as well as a "CAP" shift key]]
A significant innovation was the [[shift key]], introduced with the [[E. Remington and Sons|Remington]] No. 2 in 1878. This key physically "shifted" either the basket of typebars, in which case the typewriter is described as "basket shift", or the paper-holding carriage, in which case the typewriter is described as "carriage shift".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Mark |first1= Adams on |date=October 24, 2013 |title=Remington Standard No. 2: "Lower Case" vs. "Shift Key"? |url=https://type-writer.org/?p=1765 |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Type-Writer.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Either mechanism caused a different portion of the typebar to come in contact with the ribbon/platen.
The result is that each typebar could type two different characters, cutting the number of keys and typebars in half (and simplifying the internal mechanisms considerably). The obvious use for this was to allow letter keys to type both [[Letter case|upper and lower case]], but normally the number keys were also duplexed, allowing access to special symbols such as percent, {{char|%}}, and ampersand, {{char|&}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Typing Through Time: Keyboard History |url=https://www.daskeyboard.com/blog/typing-through-time-the-history-of-the-keyboard/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Das Keyboard Mechanical Keyboard Blog |language=en-US}}</ref>
Before the shift key, typewriters had to have a separate key and typebar for upper-case letters; in essence, the typewriter had two keyboards, one above the other. With the shift key, manufacturing costs (and therefore purchase price) were greatly reduced, and typist operation was simplified; both factors contributed greatly to mass adoption of the technology.
===== Three-bank typewriters =====
Certain models further reduced the number of keys and typebars by making each key perform three functions – each typebar could type three different characters. These little three-row machines were portable and could be used by journalists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mosher |first=Charles Philo |date=10 April 1917 |title=Type-Writing Machine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DngbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA537 |journal=Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office |page=537}}</ref>
Such three-row machines were popular with WWI journalists because they were lighter and more compact than four-bank typewriters, while they could type just as fast and use just as many symbols.<ref>
Alan Seaver.
[http://sevenels.net/typewriters/3banks.htm "Three-Bank Typewriters"]
</ref>
Such three-row machines, such as the Bar-Let<ref>
[https://www.typewriters101.com/collection.html "My Typewriter Collection: Bar-Let Model 2"].
</ref>
and the [[Smith Corona#Corona Typewriter Company|Corona]] No. 3 Typewriter<ref>
Smithsonian National Museum of American History.
[https://www.si.edu/object/corona-typewriter%3Anmah_849921 "Corona No. 3 Typewriter"]
</ref><ref>
[https://www.typewriters101.com/store/p430/1921_Corona_Folding_No._3.html "1921 Corona Folding No. 3"].
</ref>
have two separate shift keys, a "CAP" shift (for uppercase) and a "FIG" shift (for numbers and symbols).<ref>
Anthony Casillo.
[https://books.google.com/books?id=emcqDwAAQBAJ "Typewriters: Iconic Machines from the Golden Age of Mechanical Writing"].
2017.
p. 116; 197 - 198.
</ref>
The [[Murray code]] was developed for a [[teletypewriter]] with a similar three-row typewriter keyboard.<ref>
[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuIOu97MduQC "Principles of Telegraphy, Teletypewriter"].
1967.
p. A-15.
</ref>
==== Tab key ====
To facilitate typewriter use in business settings, a tab (tabulator) key was added in the late nineteenth century. Before using the key, the operator had to set mechanical "tab stops", pre-designated locations to which the carriage would advance when the tab key was pressed. This facilitated the typing of columns of numbers, freeing the operator from the need to manually position the carriage. The first models had one tab stop and one tab key; later ones allowed as many stops as desired, and sometimes had multiple tab keys, each of which moved the carriage a different number of spaces ahead of the decimal point (the tab stop), to facilitate the typing of columns with numbers of different length ($1.00, $10.00, $100.00, etc.)
==== Dead keys ====
{{Main|Dead key}}
Languages such as French, Spanish, and German required [[diacritic]]s, special signs attached to or on top of the base letter: for example, a combination of the [[acute accent]] {{char|´}} plus {{char|e}} produced {{char|é}}; {{char|~}} plus {{char|n}} produced {{char|ñ}}. In [[Typesetting#Movable type|metal typesetting]], {{angbr|é}}, {{angbr|ñ}}, and others were separate [[Sort (typesetting)|sorts]]. With mechanical typewriters, the number of whose characters (sorts) was constrained by the physical limits of the machine, the number of keys required was reduced by the use of [[dead keys]]. Diacritics such as {{char|´}} ([[acute accent]]) would be assigned to a [[dead key]], which did not move the [[platen]] forward, permitting another character to be imprinted at the same location; thus a single dead key such as the acute accent could be combined with {{char|a}},{{char|e}},{{char|i}},{{char|o}} and {{char|u}} to produce {{char|á}},{{char|é}},{{char|í}},{{char|ó}} and {{char|ú}}, reducing the number of sorts needed from 5 to 1. The typebars of "normal" characters struck a rod as they moved the metal character desired toward the ribbon and platen, and each rod depression moved the platen forward the width of one character. Dead keys had a typebar shaped so as not to strike the rod.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Smalley |first1=William A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXM_RL4UWe0C&pg=PA115 |title=Mother of Writing: The Origin and Development of a Hmong Messianic Script |last2=Vang |first2=Chia Koua |last3=Yang |first3=Gnia Yee |date=1990|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-76287-6 |language=en}}</ref>
==== Character sizes ====
{{more|Point (typography)|Pitch (typewriter)}}
In English-speaking countries, ordinary typewriters printing fixed-width characters were standardized to print six horizontal lines per vertical inch, and had either of two variants of character width, one called ''pica'' for ten characters per horizontal inch and the other ''elite'', for twelve. This differed from the use of these terms in printing, where [[Pica (typography)|pica]] is a linear unit (approximately {{frac|1|6}} of an inch) used for any measurement, the most common one being the height of a type face.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief Chronology of the Typewriter |url=http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/pro05.htm |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.quadibloc.com}}</ref>
==== Color ====
Some ribbons were inked in black and red stripes, each being half the width and running the entire length of the ribbon. A lever on most machines allowed switching between colors, which was useful for bookkeeping entries where negative amounts were highlighted in red. The red color was also used on some selected characters in running text, for emphasis. When a typewriter had this facility, it could still be fitted with a solid black ribbon; the lever was then used to switch to fresh ribbon when the first stripe ran out of ink. Some typewriters also had a third position which stopped the ribbon being struck at all. This enabled the keys to hit the paper unobstructed, and was used for cutting stencils for [[Mimeograph|stencil duplicators]] (aka mimeograph machines).<ref name="MimeoTypewriter">{{Cite web |title=How to prepare a mimeograph stencil by using a typewriter |url=http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtoprepareamimeographstencil2.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121016144524/http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtoprepareamimeographstencil2.htm |archive-date=2012-10-16 |access-date=2011-05-10 |website=LinguaLinks Library |publisher=SIL International}}</ref>
==== "Noiseless" designs ====
[[File:Rapid typewriter, 1890 (Martin Howard Collection).jpg|thumb|Rapid typewriter, 1890]]
The first typewriter to have the sliding type bars (laid out horizontally like a fan) that enable a typewriter to be 'noiseless' was the American made Rapid which appeared briefly on the market in 1890. The Rapid also had the remarkable ability for the typist to have entire control of the carriage by manipulation of the keyboard alone. The two keys that achieve this are positioned at the top of the keyboard (seen in the detail image below). They are a ‘Lift’ key that advances the paper, on the platen, to the next line and a ‘Return’ key that causes the carriage to automatically swing back to the right, ready for one to type the new line. So an entire page could be typed without one’s hands leaving the keyboard.
In the early part of the 20th century, a typewriter was marketed under the name Noiseless and advertised as "silent". It was developed by Wellington Parker Kidder and the first model was marketed by the Noiseless Typewriter Company in 1917.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Noiseless Portable |url=https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/noiselessportable.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The Classic Typewriter Page}}</ref> Noiseless portables sold well in the 1930s and 1940s, and noiseless standards continued to be manufactured until the 1960s. <ref name="ja" />
In a conventional typewriter the type bar reaches the end of its travel simply by striking the ribbon and paper. The Noiseless, developed by Kidder, has a complex lever mechanism that decelerates the type bar mechanically before pressing it against the ribbon and paper in an attempt to dampen the noise.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gould |first=R. T. |title=The Modern Typewriter and ITS Probable Future Development |date=1928 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41357995 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Arts |volume=76 |issue=3940 |pages=717–738 |jstor=41357995 |issn=0035-9114}}</ref>
=== Electric designs ===
Although electric typewriters would not achieve widespread popularity until nearly a century later, the basic groundwork for the electric typewriter was laid by the [[Universal Stock Ticker]], invented by [[Thomas Edison]] in 1870. This device remotely printed letters and numbers on a stream of paper tape from input generated by a specially designed typewriter at the other end of a telegraph line.
==== Early electric models ====
Some electric typewriters were patented in the 19th century, but the first machine known to be produced in series is the Cahill of 1900.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bert Kerschbaumer, "The Cahill Electrical Typewriters," ETCetera No. 100 (December 2012) |url=http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC100.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730133043/http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC100.pdf |archive-date=2016-07-30}}</ref>
Another electric typewriter was produced by the [[Blickensderfer typewriter|Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company]], of [[Stamford, Connecticut]], in 1902. Like the manual Blickensderfer typewriters, it used a cylindrical typewheel rather than individual typebars. The machine was produced in several variants but apparently not a commercial success,<ref>{{Cite web |title=P. Robert Aubert, "The Last Service Call," ETCetera No. 33(December 1995) |url=http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC033.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730133642/http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC033.pdf |archive-date=2016-07-30}}</ref> having come to market ahead of its time, before ubiquitous [[electrification]].
The next step in the development of the electric typewriter came in 1910, when Charles and Howard Krum filed a patent for the first practical [[teleprinter|teletypewriter]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Patent 1,286,351 filed in May, 1910, and issued in December, 1918 |url=http://patimg2.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=01286351&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D1286351.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F1286351%2526RS%3DPN%2F1286351&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225235913/http://patimg2.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=01286351&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D1286351.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F1286351%2526RS%3DPN%2F1286351&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page |archive-date=2016-12-25 |access-date=2011-09-16}}</ref> The Krums' machine, named the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, used a typewheel rather than individual typebars. This machine was used for the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between [[Boston]] and New York City in 1910.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Colin Hempstead, William E. Worthington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA605 |title=Encyclopedia of 20th Century Technology |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-57958-464-1 |page=605}}</ref>
[[James Fields Smathers]] of Kansas City invented what is considered the first practical power-operated typewriter in 1914. In 1920, after returning from Army service, he produced a successful model and in 1923 turned it over to the Northeast Electric Company of Rochester for development. Northeast was interested in finding new markets for their electric motors and developed Smathers's design so that it could be marketed to typewriter manufacturers, and from 1925 Remington Electric typewriters were produced powered by Northeast's motors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=The history of IBM electric typewriters |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_history.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM Archives |language=en-US}}</ref>
After some 2,500 electric typewriters had been produced, Northeast asked Remington for a firm contract for the next batch. However, Remington was engaged in merger talks, which would eventually result in the creation of [[Remington Rand]] and no executives were willing to commit to a firm order. Northeast instead decided to enter the typewriter business for itself, and in 1929 produced the first Electromatic Typewriter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IBM Electromatic Typewriter |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1155510 |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=National Museum of American History |language=en}}</ref>
In 1928, [[Delco Electronics|Delco]], a division of [[General Motors]], purchased Northeast Electric, and the typewriter business was spun off as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by [[IBM]], which then spent [[United States dollar|$]]1 million on a redesign of the Electromatic Typewriter, launching the IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2003 |title=IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01 |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2240.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526135454/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2240.html |archive-date=2013-05-26 |access-date=2013-09-12 |publisher=03.ibm.com}}</ref>
In 1931, an electric typewriter was introduced by Varityper Corporation. It was called the [[Varityper]], because a narrow cylinder-like wheel could be replaced to change the [[font]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 1931 |title=Changing the Type of Typewriter Made Easy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA83 |url-status=live |journal=[[Popular Mechanics]] |page=83 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA83 |archive-date=2018-06-26}}</ref>
In 1941, IBM announced the Electromatic Model 04 electric typewriter, featuring the revolutionary concept of proportional spacing. By assigning varied rather than uniform spacing to different sized characters, the Type 4 recreated the appearance of a typeset page, an effect that was further enhanced by including the 1937 innovation of carbon-film ribbons that produced clearer, sharper words on the page.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2003 |title=IBM Typewriter Milestones |url=https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627172904/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html |archive-date=2017-06-27 |publisher=IBM Archives}}</ref>
==== IBM Selectric ====
{{Main|IBM Selectric typewriter}}
[[File:Selectric II.jpg|thumb|IBM Selectric II (dual Latin/Hebrew typeball and keyboard)]]
IBM introduced the [[IBM Selectric typewriter]] in 1961, which replaced the typebars with a spherical element (or '''typeball''') slightly smaller than a [[golf ball]], with reverse-image letters molded into its surface. The Selectric used a system of latches, metal tapes, and pulleys driven by an electric motor to rotate the ball into the correct position and then strike it against the ribbon and platen. The typeball moved laterally in front of the paper, instead of the previous designs using a platen-carrying carriage moving the paper across a stationary print position.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-20 |title=A different type of dance move |url=https://www.ibm.com/blogs/industries/selectric-typewriter-dancers/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Industrious |language=en-US}}</ref>
Due to the physical similarity, the typeball was sometimes referred to as a "golfball".<ref name="ibm100">{{Cite web |last=IBM |date=7 March 2012 |title=The Selectric Typewriter |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/selectric/ |access-date=20 January 2020 |website=Icons of Progress}}</ref> The typeball design had many advantages, especially the elimination of "jams" (when more than one key was struck at once and the typebars became entangled) and in the ability to change the typeball, allowing multiple fonts to be used in a single document.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-03-07 |title=The Selectric Typewriter |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/selectric/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM100 |language=en-US}}</ref>
The IBM Selectric became a commercial success, dominating the office typewriter market for at least two decades.<ref name="ibm100" /> IBM also gained an advantage by marketing more heavily to schools than did Remington, with the idea that students who learned to type on a Selectric would later choose IBM typewriters over the competition in the workplace as businesses replaced their old manual models.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jackson |first=Nicholas |date=2011-07-27 |title=IBM Reinvented the Typewriter With the Selectric 50 Years Ago |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/07/ibm-reinvented-the-typewriter-with-the-selectric-50-years-ago/242624/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The Atlantic |language=en-US}}</ref>
Later models of IBM Executives and Selectrics replaced inked fabric ribbons with "carbon film" ribbons that had a dry black or colored powder on a clear plastic tape. These could be used only once, but later models used a cartridge that was simple to replace. A side effect of this technology was that the text typed on the machine could be easily read from the used ribbon, raising issues where the machines were used for preparing classified documents (ribbons had to be accounted for to ensure that typists did not carry them from the facility).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellen |first=David |title=Scientific Examination of Documents |publisher=CRC Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8493-3925-7 |pages=106–107}}</ref>
{{anchor|Correcting typewriters}}
A variation known as "Correcting Selectrics" introduced a correction feature, later imitated by competing machines, where a sticky tape in front of the carbon film ribbon could remove the black-powdered image of a typed character, eliminating the need for little bottles of white dab-on correction fluid and for hard erasers that could tear the paper. These machines also introduced selectable "pitch" so that the typewriter could be switched between [[Pica (typography)|pica]] type (10 characters per inch) and elite type (12 per inch), even within one document. Even so, all Selectrics were [[Proportional fonts|monospaced]] – each character and letterspace was allotted the same width on the page, from a capital "W" to a period. IBM did produce a successful typebar-based machine with five levels of proportional spacing, called the [[IBM Executive series typewriter|IBM Executive]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wershler-Henry |first=Darren |url=https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254 |title=The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8014-4586-6 |location=Ithaca and London |page=[https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254 254] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
The only fully electromechanical Selectric Typewriter with fully proportional spacing and which used a Selectric type element was the expensive [[IBM Selectric Composer|Selectric Composer]], which was capable of right-margin justification (typing each line twice was required, once to calculate and again to print) and was considered a [[Typesetter|typesetting machine]] rather than a typewriter. Composer typeballs physically resembled those of the Selectric typewriter but were not interchangeable.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=IBM Office Products Division highlights |page= 2 |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_office2.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM Archives |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Sample of IBM Magnetic Card Composer Output.png|thumb|Composer output showing [[Roman type|Roman]], [[Emphasis (typography)|Bold]] and [[Italic font]]s available by changing the type ball]]In addition to its electronic successors, the [[IBM Selectric typewriter#Selectric-based machines with data storage|Magnetic Tape Selectric Composer]] (MT/SC), the Mag Card Selectric Composer, and the Electronic Selectric Composer, IBM also made electronic typewriters with proportional spacing using the Selectric element that were considered typewriters or [[word processor]]s instead of typesetting machines.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-19 |title=IBM MT/ST (1964 – late 1970s) |url=https://obsoletemedia.org/ibm-mtst/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Museum of Obsolete Media |language=en-GB}}</ref>
The first of these was the relatively obscure Mag Card Executive, which used 88-character elements. Later, some of the same typestyles used for it were used on the 96-character elements used on the IBM Electronic Typewriter 50 and the later models 65 and 85.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=IBM typewriter milestones |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone2.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=IBM Archives |language=en-US|page=2}}</ref>
By 1970, as [[offset printing]] began to replace [[letterpress printing]], the Composer would be adapted as the output unit for a typesetting system. The system included a computer-driven input station to capture the key strokes on magnetic tape and insert the operator's format commands, and a Composer unit to read the tape and produce the formatted text for photo reproduction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-01-18 |title=Quickprint closes after 72 years, presses roll elsewhere |url=https://www.superiortelegram.com/news/quickprint-closes-after-72-years-presses-roll-elsewhere |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Superior Telegram |language=en}}</ref>
The [[IBM 2741]] terminal was a popular example of a Selectric-based computer terminal, and similar mechanisms were employed as the console devices for many [[IBM System/360]] computers. These mechanisms used "ruggedized" designs compared to those in standard office typewriters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IBM Selectric Typewriter Resource Page |url=http://www.covingtoninnovations.com/selectric/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.covingtoninnovations.com}}</ref>
==== Later electric models ====
{{Listen
| filename = Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 typing.ogg
| title = Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 being tapped
| description = A recording of the sound of typing on a Smith-Corona electric typewriter.}}
Some of IBM's advances were later adopted in less expensive machines from competitors. For example, [[Smith Corona|Smith-Corona]] electric typewriters introduced in 1973 switched to interchangeable Coronamatic (SCM-patented) ribbon cartridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Smith Corona | Since 1877 to Present |url=http://www.smithcorona.com/history.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322134218/http://www.smithcorona.com/history.html |archive-date=2017-03-22 |access-date=2017-03-12}}</ref> including fabric, film, erasing, and two-color versions. At about the same time, the advent of [[photocopying]] meant that [[Carbon copy|carbon copies]], [[correction fluid]] and [[eraser]]s were less and less necessary; only the original need be typed, and photocopies made from it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dana@mid2mod |date=2011-08-03 |title=Mid2Mod: Back in the day: Typing erasers |url=https://mid2mod.blogspot.com/2011/08/back-in-day-typing-erasers.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Mid2Mod}}</ref>{{better source |reason=[[WP:BLOGS]]|date=March 2024}}
==== Electronic typewriters ====
The final major development of the typewriter was the electronic typewriter. Most of these replaced the typeball with a plastic or metal [[daisy wheel]] mechanism (a disk with the letters molded on the outside edge of the "petals"). The daisy wheel concept first emerged in printers developed by [[Diablo Systems]] in the 1970s. The first electronic daisywheel typewriter marketed in the world (in 1976) is the Olivetti Tes 501, and subsequently in 1978, the Olivetti ET101 (with function display) and Olivetti TES 401 (with text display and floppy disk for memory storage). This has allowed Olivetti to maintain the world record in the design of electronic typewriters, proposing increasingly advanced and performing models in the following years.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Giuseppe Silmo |title=M.P.S. Macchine per scrivere Olivetti e non solo |publisher=Fondazione Natale Capellaro |year=2007 |page=74}}</ref>
Unlike the Selectrics and earlier models, these really were "electronic" and relied on integrated circuits and electromechanical components. These typewriters were sometimes called ''display typewriters'',<ref>{{US patent reference|number = 4620808| y = 1986| m = 11| d = 04| title = Display typewriter}}</ref> ''dedicated word processors'' or ''word-processing typewriters'', though the latter term was also frequently applied to less sophisticated machines that featured only a tiny, sometimes just single-row display. Sophisticated models were also called ''word processors'', though today that term almost always denotes a type of software program. Manufacturers of such machines included Olivetti (TES501, first totally electronic Olivetti word processor with daisywheel and floppy disk in 1976; TES621 in 1979 etc.), [[Brother Industries|Brother]] (Brother WP1 and WP500 etc., where WP stood for word processor), [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] ([[Canon Cat]]), [[Smith-Corona]] (PWP, i.e. Personal Word Processor line)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smith-Corona |url=http://mindmachine.co.uk/products/04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html#PWP-series |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528120612/http://mindmachine.co.uk/products/04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html#PWP-series |archive-date=2013-05-28 |access-date=2013-09-12 |publisher=Mindmachine.co.uk}}</ref> and [[Philips]]/[[Magnavox]] ([[VideoWriter]]).
<gallery class="center">
File:Type.jpg|Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] Typestar 110
File:Brother WP1-IMG 6991.jpg|The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a [[floppy disk]] reader
</gallery>
=== Decline===
The pace of change was so rapid that it was common for clerical staff to have to learn several new systems, one after the other, in just a few years.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203221938-5/women-clerical-workers-typewriter-writing-machine-margery-davies|chapter=Women Clerical Workers and the Typwriter: The Writing Machine|date=2004-01-14|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-22193-8|language=en|doi=10.4324/9780203221938|title= Technology and Women's Voices|editor-first=Cheris|editor-last=Kramarae|first=Margery W.|last=Davies}}</ref> While such rapid change is commonplace today, and is taken for granted, this was not always so; in fact, typewriting technology changed very little in its first 80 or 90 years.<ref>{{Cite web|last=AO|date=2020-01-29|title=The Society-Changing Invention of Typewriters|url=https://historythings.com/life-changing-invention-typewriters/|access-date=2021-05-18|website=History Things|language=en-US}}</ref>
Due to falling sales, IBM sold its typewriter division in 1991 to the newly formed [[Lexmark]], completely exiting from a market it once dominated.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1991-01-12 |title=Company News; I.B.M. to Complete Unit Sale in March |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/12/business/company-news-ibm-to-complete-unit-sale-in-march.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
The increasing dominance of personal computers, [[desktop publishing]], the introduction of low-cost, truly high-quality [[laser printer|laser]] and [[inkjet printer]] technologies, and the pervasive use of [[web publishing]], [[email]], [[text messaging]], and other electronic communication techniques have largely replaced typewriters in the United States. Still, {{as of|2009|lc=y}}, typewriters continued to be used by a number of government agencies and other institutions in the US, where they are primarily used to fill preprinted forms. According to a Boston typewriter repairman quoted by ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', "Every maternity ward has a typewriter, as well as funeral homes".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Keene |first=Cindy Atoji |date=2009-02-01 |title=Typewriters ring on in the fringes |work=The Boston Globe |url=https://www.boston.com/jobs/news/articles/2009/02/01/typewriters_ring_on_in_the_fringes/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826014156/http://www.boston.com/jobs/news/articles/2009/02/01/typewriters_ring_on_in_the_fringes/ |archive-date=2013-08-26}}</ref>
A rather specialized market for typewriters exists due to the regulations of many correctional systems in the US, where prisoners are prohibited from having computers or telecommunication equipment, but are allowed to own typewriters. The Swintec corporation (headquartered in [[Moonachie, New Jersey]]), which, as of 2011, still produced typewriters at its overseas factories (in Japan, [[Indonesia]], and/or [[Malaysia]]), manufactures a variety of typewriters for use in prisons, made of clear plastic (to make it harder for prisoners to hide prohibited items inside it). As of 2011, the company had contracts with prisons in 43 US states.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-04-27 |title=The death of the typewriter? Don't write it off yet |url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/death-typewriter-dont-write-it-yet |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503045910/http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/death-typewriter-dont-write-it-yet |archive-date=2011-05-03 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Radio Netherlands Worldwide}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-06-15 |title=Texas inmates have clear choice in typewriters |url=http://fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com/news/2011/06/15/5574540.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426011651/http://fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com/news/2011/06/15/5574540.htm |archive-date=2012-04-26 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com}}</ref>
In April 2011, Godrej and Boyce, a [[Mumbai]]-based manufacturer of mechanical typewriters, closed its doors, leading to a flurry of news reports that the "world's last typewriter factory" had shut down.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CBC News |date=April 26, 2011 |title=World's last typewriter plant stops production |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html |url-status=live |access-date=April 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429015137/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |quote=A previous version of this story did not clearly state that Godrej & Boyce appears to be the world's last maker of mechanical typewriters, which operate solely on human power. Numerous other manufacturers continue to make several types of electric typewriters.}}</ref> The reports were quickly contested, with opinions settling to agree that it was indeed the world's last producer of manual typewriters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-04-26 |title=Wite Out? World's 'last typewriter factory' apparently isn't |url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1 |first=Douglas |last=Stanglin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707111148/http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1 |archive-date=2012-07-07 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=USA Today }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Romenesko |first=Jim |date=2011-04-26 |title=Reports of typewriter's death are premature |url=http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/129512/reports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904024830/http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/129512/reports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature/ |archive-date=2011-09-04 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Poynter. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Memmott |first=Mark |date=2011-04-26 |title=Has The Last Typewriter Factory Closed? Not Really |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/26/135740246/has-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313204452/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/26/135740246/has-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really |archive-date=2012-03-13 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=NPR }}</ref><ref name="rohrlich">{{Cite web |last=Rohrlich |first=Justin |date=2011-04-25 |title=Contrary to Reports, Typewriter Industry "Far From Dead" |url=http://www.minyanville.com/mvpremium/2011/04/25/contrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry |url-status=dead |website=Minyanville |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224204135/http://www.minyanville.com/mvpremium/2011/04/25/contrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry/ |archive-date=2016-02-24}}</ref>
In November 2012, Brother's UK factory manufactured what it claimed to be the last typewriter ever made in the UK; the typewriter was donated to the [[London Science Museum]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-11-20 |title=UK's 'last typewriter' produced |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20391538 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219184806/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20391538 |archive-date=2013-12-19 |access-date=2013-09-12 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>
Russian typewriters use [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], which has made the ongoing [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] [[Azerbaijani alphabet|reconversion]] from [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] to [[Latin alphabet]] more difficult. In 1997, the government of [[Turkey]] offered to donate western typewriters to the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]] in exchange for more zealous and exclusive promotion of the Latin alphabet for the Azerbaijani language; this offer, however, was declined.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cornell |first=Svante |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_qQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 |title=Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1135796693 |page=283}}</ref>
In Latin America and Africa, mechanical typewriters are still common because they can be used without electrical power. In Latin America, the typewriters used are most often Brazilian models; Brazil continues to produce mechanical (Facit) and electronic (Olivetti) typewriters to the present day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ainda se fabricam máquinas de escrever? (''Are typewriters still manufactured?'') |url=http://mundoestranho.abril.com.br/materia/ainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425025818/http://mundoestranho.abril.com.br/materia/ainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever |archive-date=2012-04-25 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Mundoestranho.abril.com.br}}</ref>
The early 21st century saw revival of interest in typewriters among certain subcultures, including [[maker culture|makers]], [[steampunk]]s, [[hipster (contemporary subculture)|hipsters]], and street poets.<ref name="PoltBook"/>
== Correction technologies ==
According to the standards taught in secretarial schools in the mid-20th century, a [[business letter]] was supposed to have no mistakes and no visible corrections.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Lynn |last=Peril |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1036875148 |title=Swimming in the steno pool : a retro guide to making it in the office |date=2011 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |pages=232 |oclc=1036875148}}</ref>
=== Typewriter erasers ===
[[File:Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg|thumb|Triumph typewriter eraser (1960)]]
The traditional erasing method involved the use of a special ''typewriter [[eraser]]'' made of [[hard rubber]] that contained an [[abrasive]] material. Some were thin, flat disks, pink or gray, approximately {{convert|2|in|mm}} in diameter by {{convert|1/8|in|mm}} thick, with a brush attached from the center, while others looked like pink pencils, with a sharpenable eraser at the "lead" end and a stiff nylon brush at the other end. Either way, these tools made possible erasure of individual typed letters. Business letters were typed on heavyweight, high-rag-content bond paper, not merely to provide a luxurious appearance, but also to stand up to erasure.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=November 1947 |title=Rotating Typewriter Eraser |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA128 |magazine=Popular Mechanics |page=128 |access-date=2022-04-27}}</ref>
Typewriter eraser brushes were necessary for clearing eraser crumbs and paper dust, and using the brush properly was an important element of typewriting skill; if erasure detritus fell into the typewriter, a small buildup could cause the typebars to jam in their narrow supporting grooves.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erasing History |url=https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/may-2009/erasing-history |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Perspectives on History {{!}} AHA}}</ref>
[[File:Erasing Shield Stainless Steel.jpg|thumb|Erasing Shield (1992)]]
=== Erasing shield ===
Erasing a set of [[carbon copies]] was particularly difficult, and called for the use of a device called an ''[[erasing shield]]'' or ''eraser shield'' (a thin stainless-steel rectangle about {{convert|2|by|3|in}} with several tiny holes in it) to prevent the pressure of erasing on the upper copies from producing carbon smudges on the lower copies. To correct copies, typists had to go from one carbon copy layer to the next carbon copy layer, trying not to get their fingers dirty as they leafed through the carbon papers, and moving and repositioning the eraser shield and eraser for each copy.
=== Erasable bond ===
Paper companies produced a special form of typewriter paper called ''erasable bond'' (for example, [[Eaton's Corrasable Bond]]). This incorporated a thin layer of material that prevented ink from penetrating and was relatively soft and easy to remove from the page. An ordinary soft pencil eraser could quickly produce perfect erasures on this kind of paper. However, the same characteristics that made the paper erasable made the characters subject to smudging due to ordinary friction and deliberate alteration after the fact, making it unacceptable for business correspondence, contracts, or any archival use.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-02-19 |title=Escaping the Bonds of Erasable Bond |url=https://orwhatyouwill.wordpress.com/2010/02/18/escaping-the-bonds-of-erasable-bond/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Or What You Will |language=en}}</ref>
=== Correction fluid ===
{{Main|Correction fluid}}
In the 1950s and 1960s, [[correction fluid]] made its appearance, under brand names such as [[Liquid Paper]], [[Wite-Out]] and [[Tipp-Ex]]; it was invented by [[Bette Nesmith Graham]]. Correction fluid was a kind of opaque, white, fast-drying paint that produced a fresh white surface onto which, when dry, a correction could be retyped. However, when held to the light, the covered-up characters were visible, as was the patch of dry correction fluid (which was never perfectly flat, and frequently not a perfect match for the color, texture, and luster of the surrounding paper). The standard trick for solving this problem was [[photocopying]] the corrected page, but this was possible only with high quality photocopiers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mejia |first=Zameena |date=2018-07-23 |title=How inventing Liquid Paper got a secretary fired and then turned her into an exec worth $25 million |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/19/inventing-liquid-paper-got-a-secretary-fired-and-then-made-her-rich.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>
A different fluid was available for correcting stencils. It sealed up the stencil ready for retyping but did not attempt to color match.<ref name="MimeoCorrect">{{Cite web |title=How to correct a mimeograph stencil |url=http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtocorrectamimeographstencil.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121016144730/http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtocorrectamimeographstencil.htm |archive-date=2012-10-16 |access-date=2011-05-10 |website=LinguaLinks Library |publisher=SIL International}}</ref>
== Legacy ==
=== Keyboard layouts ===
[[File:UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg|thumb|The "[[QWERTY]]" layout of typewriter keys became a ''de facto'' standard and continues to be used long after the reasons for its adoption (including reduction of key/lever entanglements) have ceased to apply.]]
==== QWERTY ====
{{main|QWERTY}}
The 1874 Sholes & Glidden typewriters established the "QWERTY" layout for the letter keys. During the period in which Sholes and his colleagues were experimenting with this invention, other keyboard arrangements were apparently tried, but these are poorly documented.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liebowitz |first1=S. J. |last2=Stephen E. Margolis |year=1990 |title=The Fable of the Keys |url=http://wwwpub.utdallas.edu/~liebowit/keys1.html |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Law & Economics |publisher=The University of Chicago |volume=XXXIII |issue=April 1990 |pages=1 |doi=10.1086/467198 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703204106/http://wwwpub.utdallas.edu/%7Eliebowit/keys1.html |archive-date=2008-07-03 |access-date=2008-06-18 |quote=This article examines the history, economics, and ergonomics of the typewriter keyboard. We show that David's version of the history of the market's rejection of Dvorak does not report the true history, and we present evidence that the continued use of Qwerty is efficient given the current understanding of keyboard design. |s2cid=14262869|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The QWERTY layout of keys has become the de facto standard for English-language typewriter and computer keyboards. Other languages written in the [[Latin alphabet]] sometimes use variants of the QWERTY layouts, such as the French [[AZERTY]], the Italian [[QZERTY]] and the German [[QWERTZ]] layouts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Francis |first=Darryl |date=2015-11-01 |title=AZERTY & QWERTZ keyboards |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00437980&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA435533172&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |journal=Word Ways |language=English |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=292–295}}</ref>
The QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout possible for the English language. [[Touch typing|Touch-typists]] are required to move their fingers between rows to type the most common letters. Although the QWERTY keyboard was the most commonly used layout in typewriters, a better, less strenuous keyboard was being searched for throughout the late 1900s.<ref>{{Citation |last=Kroemer |first=Karl H.E |title=Keyboards and keying an annotated bibliography of the literature from 1878 to 1999 |journal=Universal Access in the Information Society |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=99–160 |year=2014 |doi=10.1007/s102090100012 |s2cid=207064170}}</ref>
One popular but incorrect<ref name="Smithsonian">{{Cite web |last=Stamp |first=Jimmy |title=Fact of Fiction? The Legend of the QWERTY Keyboard |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/fact-of-fiction-the-legend-of-the-qwerty-keyboard-49863249/ |website=Smithsonian}}</ref> explanation for the QWERTY arrangement is that it was designed to reduce the likelihood of internal clashing of typebars by placing commonly used combinations of letters farther from each other inside the machine.<ref name="David, P.A. 1986">David, P. A. (1986). "Understanding the Economics of QWERTY: the Necessity of History". In Parker, William N., ''Economic History and the Modern Economist''. Basil Blackwell, New York and Oxford.</ref>
==== Other layouts for English ====
A number of radically different layouts such as [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard|Dvorak]] have been proposed to reduce the perceived inefficiencies of QWERTY, but none have been able to displace the QWERTY layout; their proponents claim considerable advantages, but so far none has been widely used. The [[Blickensderfer typewriter]] with its [[DHIATENSOR]] layout may have possibly been the first attempt at optimizing the keyboard layout for efficiency advantages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Instructions for Using the Blickensderfer Typewriter |url=http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa_A0562/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221053745/http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa_A0562/ |archive-date=2014-02-21 |access-date=2014-01-03}}</ref>
On modern keyboards, the exclamation point is the shifted character on the 1 key, because these were the last characters to become "standard" on keyboards. Holding the spacebar down usually suspended the carriage advance mechanism (a so-called "[[dead key]]" feature), allowing one to superimpose multiple keystrikes on a single location. The ¢ symbol (meaning cents) was located above the number 6 on American electric typewriters, whereas [[ANSI]]-[[INCITS]]-standard [[computer keyboard]]s have ^ instead.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130131061059/http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI%20INCITS%20154-1988%20%28R1999%29 ANSI INCITS 154-1988 (R1999) Office Machines and Supplies – Alphanumeric Machines – Keyboard Arrangement (formerly ANSI X3.154-1988 (R1999))] (retrieved 2012-07-04)</ref>
====Keyboards for other languages====
[[File:Lettera 22 2.JPG|thumb|Italian typewriter [[Olivetti Lettera 22]]]]
The keyboards for other Latin languages are broadly similar to QWERTY but are optimised for the relevant orthography. In addition to some changes in the order of letters, perhaps the most obvious is the presence of [[precomposed character]]s and [[diacritic]]s.
Many non-Latin alphabets have keyboard layouts that have nothing to do with QWERTY. The Russian layout, for instance, puts the common trigrams ыва, про, and ить on adjacent keys so that they can be typed by rolling the fingers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Purcell |first=Edward T. |date=1974 |title=Computer-Controlled Drills for First-Year Russian |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/306437 |journal=The Slavic and East European Journal |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=56–68 |doi=10.2307/306437 |jstor=306437 |issn=0037-6752|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Typewriters were also made for [[East Asian languages]] with thousands of characters, such as [[Chinese typewriter|Chinese]] or [[Japanese typewriter|Japanese]]. They were not easy to operate, but professional typists used them for a long time until the development of electronic word processors and [[laser printer]]s in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Makinen |first=Julie |date=2016-09-03 |title=Before the computer, there was something almost as complex: the Chinese typewriter |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-chinese-typewriter-snap-story.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Typewriter conventions ===
[[File:Typerwriter conventions text example.gif|thumb|This typed page uses a number of typographic conventions stemming from the mechanical limitations of the typewriter: two hyphens in place of an [[em dash]], double [[sentence spacing]], straight [[quotation mark]]s, [[Tab key|tab]] indents for paragraphs, and double [[carriage return]]s between paragraphs]]
A number of typographical conventions stem from the typewriter's characteristics and limitations. For example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did not include keys for the [[en dash]] and the [[em dash]]. To overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one adjacent hyphen to approximate these symbols.<ref>{{cite book |title = The elements of typographic style |edition = third |first = Robert |last = Bringhurst |publisher = Hartley & Marks, Publishers |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0-88179-206-5 |page = 80 |access-date = 10 November 2020 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780881791327/page/80/mode/2up |quote=In typescript, a double hyphen (--) is often used for a long dash. Double hyphens in a typeset document are a sure sign that the type was set by a typist, not a typographer. A typographer will use an em dash, three-quarter em, or en dash, depending on context or personal style. The em dash is the nineteenth-century standard, still prescribed in many editorial style books, but the em dash is too long for use with the best text faces. Like the oversized space between sentences, it belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography.}}</ref> This typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, even though modern computer word processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font type.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Upper and Lower Case Magazine |title=U&lc Online Issue 41.1.1: Top Ten Type Crimes |url=http://www.itcfonts.com/Ulc/4111/TopTenTypeCrimes.htm |access-date=23 March 2010}}</ref>
Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes still used in desktop publishing systems include inserting a [[sentence spacing|double space]] between sentences,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Robin |title=The Mac is not a typewriter: A style manual for creating professional-level type on your Macintosh |publisher=Peachpit Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-201-78263-9 |edition=2nd |location=Berkeley, California |ref=Wil03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Felici |first=James |title=The Complete Manual of Typography: A Guide to Setting Perfect Type |publisher=Peachpit Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-321-12730-3 |location=Berkeley, California |pages=80}}</ref> and the use of the [[typewriter apostrophe]], {{char|'}}, and [[Quotation mark#Typewriters and early computers|straight quotes]], {{char|"}}, as quotation marks and [[prime mark]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Typographic Desk Reference|url= https://archive.org/details/typographicdeskr0000rose|url-access= registration|edition= 1st|last= Rosendorf|first= Theodore|year= 2009|location= New Castle, Delaware|isbn= 978-1-58456-231-3|ref=Ros09}};
{{Cite web |last=Upper and Lower Case Magazine |title=U&lc Online Issue 41.1.1: Top Ten Type Crimes |url=http://www.itcfonts.com/Ulc/4111/TopTenTypeCrimes.htm |access-date=23 March 2010}}; {{cite book |title= Type Rules: The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography|edition= 3rd|last= Strizver|first= Ilene|year= 2010|publisher= John Wiley & Sons|location= New Jersey|isbn= 978-0-470-54251-4|page=199|ref=Str11 }}. Strizver states that "When available, true primes should be used for measurements, but typewriter quotes (not smart quotes) have become the accepted practice in digital typography."</ref> The [[List of proofreader's marks|practice of underlining text in place of italics]] and the use of all capitals to provide emphasis are additional examples of typographical conventions that derived from the limitations of the typewriter keyboard that still carry on today.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Regents of the University of Minnesota |date=18 July 2007 |title=University of Minnesota Style Manual |url=http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/style/copyprep.html#Anchor-Copy-47857 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117122230/http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/style/copyprep.html |archive-date=January 17, 2009 |access-date=12 May 2010 |website=University of Minnesota |publisher=Regents of the University of Minnesota}} This topic is discussed under "Creating Professional-looking Text."; Williams 2003. pps. 31, 33. Another example of the limitation of the typewriter in regard to underlining, was the necessity to underline the titles of books and stand-alone works in Bibliographies—works that would otherwise have been italicized, if that capability existed on the typewriter.</ref>
Many older typewriters did not include a separate key for the numeral {{char|1}} or the exclamation point {{char|!}}, and some even older ones also lacked the numeral zero, {{char|0}}. Typists who trained on these machines learned the habit of using the lowercase letter {{char|l}} ("ell") for the digit {{char|1}}, and the uppercase {{char|O}} ("oh") for the zero. A cents symbol, {{char|¢}} was created by combining ([[Overstrike|over-striking]]) a lower case {{char|c}} with a slash character (typing {{char|c}}, then backspace, then {{char|/}}). Similarly, the exclamation point was created by combining an apostrophe and a period ({{keypress|'|.}} ≈{{char|!}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Truss |first=Lynn |title=Eats, Shoot & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation |publisher=Gotham Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59240-087-4 |location=New York |page=135}}</ref>
=== Terminology repurposed for the computer age <span class="anchor" id="Terminology"></span>===
Some terminology from the typewriter age has survived into the computer era.
* [[backspace]] (BS) – a keystroke that moved the cursor backwards one position (on a typewriter, this moved the physical platen backwards), to enable a character to be overtyped. Originally this was used to combine characters (for example, the sequence {{char|'}}, backspace, {{char|.}} to make {{char|!}}). Subsequently it facilitated "erase and retype" corrections (using [[correction tape]] or [[Correction fluid|fluid]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kelechava |first=Brad |date=2016-05-17 |title=Invention of the Backspace Key |url=https://blog.ansi.org/2016/05/invention-of-backspace-key/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=The ANSI Blog |language=en-US}}</ref>) Only the latter concept has survived into the computer age.
* [[carriage return]] (CR) – return to the first column of text. (Most typewriters switched automatically to the next line. In computer systems, "line feed" (see below) is a function that is controlled independently.)<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=The Carriage Return and Line Feed Characters |url=https://danielmiessler.com/study/crlf/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Daniel Miessler |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Cursor (computers)|cursor]] – a marker used to indicate where the next character will be printed. The cursor was originally a term to describe the clear slider on a [[slide rule]];<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stoll |first=Cliff |date=April 2020 |title=When Slide Rules Ruled |url=https://www.physics.wisc.edu/ingersollmuseum/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2020/04/scientificamerican0506-80-WhenSlideRulesRuled.pdf |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Ingersoll Museum}}</ref> on typewriters, it was the paper that moved and the insertion point was fixed.
* [[Cut, copy, and paste|cut and paste]] – taking text, a numerical table, or an image and pasting it into a document. The term originated when such compound documents were created using manual [[paste up]] techniques for typographic [[page layout]]. Actual brushes and paste were later replaced by hot-wax machines equipped with cylinders that applied melted adhesive wax to developed prints of "typeset" copy. This copy was then cut out with knives and rulers, and slid into position on layout sheets on slanting layout tables. After the "copy" had been correctly positioned and squared up using a T-square and set square, it was pressed down with a brayer, or roller. The whole point of the exercise was to create so-called "camera-ready copy" which existed only to be photographed and then printed, usually by [[offset lithography]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-05-23 |title=John Naughton: Log on to an old-time typewriter; now try to cut and paste |url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/may/24/typewriter-versus-wordprocessor-technological-innovation |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>
* [[dead key]] – a key that, when typed, does not advance the typing position, thus allowing another character to be overstruck on top of the original character. This was typically used to combine [[diacritical mark]]s with letters they modified (e.g. ''è'' can be generated by first pressing {{key|`}} and then {{key|e}}). In Europe, where most languages have diacritics, a typical mechanical arrangement meant that hitting the accent key typed the symbol but did not advance the carriage, consequently the next character to be typed 'landed' on the same position. It was this method that carried across to the computer age whereas an alternative method (press the space bar simultaneously) did not.
* [[line feed]] (LF), also called "newline" – Whereas most typewriters rolled the paper forward automatically on a "carriage return), this is an explicit [[control character]] on computer systems that moves the [[Cursor (computers)|cursor]] to the next on-screen line of text.<ref name=":4" /> (But not to the beginning of that line{{snd}} a CR is also needed if that effect is desired.)
* [[Shift key|shift]] – a [[modifier key]] used to type capital letters and other alternate "upper case" characters; when pressed and held down, would shift a typewriter's mechanism to allow a different typebar impression (such as 'D' instead of 'd') to press into the ribbon and print on a page. The concept of a shift key or modifier key was later extended to [[Ctrl]], [[Alt key|Alt]], [[AltGr]] and Super ("Windows" or "Apple") keys on modern computer keyboards. The generalized concept of a shift key reached its apex in the [[MIT]] [[space-cadet keyboard]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Keyboard Design for the LISP Machine |url=http://xahlee.info/kbd/space-cadet_design.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Xah Keyboard Guide}}</ref>
* [[Tabulator key|tab]] (HT), shortened from "horizontal tab" or "tabulator stop" – caused the print position to advance horizontally to the next pre-set "tab stop". This was used for typing lists and tables with vertical columns of numbers or words.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tabs and tab stops |url=https://typographyforlawyers.com/tabs-and-tab-stops.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Typography for Lawyers}}</ref>
** The [[vertical tab]] (VT) control character, named by analogy with HT, was designed for use with early computer [[line printer]]s, and would cause the [[fan-fold paper]] to be fed until the next line's position.
* [[Tty (Unix)|tty]], short for [[teletypewriter]] – used in [[Unix-like]] operating systems to designate a given "terminal".<ref>{{Cite news |title=What is TTY? |url=https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/t/tty.htm |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Computer Hope |language=en}}</ref>
== Social effects ==
[[File:CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Humorous "Get out! Can't you see I'm busy" postcard (1900s)]]
When Remington started marketing typewriters, the company assumed the machine would not be used for composing but for transcribing dictation, and that the person typing would be a woman. The 1800s [[Sholes and Glidden typewriter]] had floral ornamentation on the case.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1876 Sholes, Gidden, Soule invention |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00451/typewriter.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214222817/http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00451/typewriter.htm |archive-date=14 December 2012 |access-date=29 December 2012}}</ref>
During World Wars I and II, increasing numbers of [[Women's roles in the World Wars|women]] were entering the workforce. In the United States, women often started in the professional workplace as [[copy typist]]s. Being a typist was considered the right choice for a "good girl", meaning women who present themselves as being chaste and having good conduct.<ref>Boyer, Kate, and Kim England. "Gender, Work and Technology in the Information Workplace: From Typewriters to ATMs." Social & Cultural Geography 9.3 (2008): 241–256. Web.</ref> According to the 1900 census, 94.9% of stenographers and typists were unmarried women.<ref>Waller, Robert A. "Women and the Typewriter During the First Fifty Years, 1873–1923". Studies in Popular Culture 9.1 (1986): 39–50. Web.</ref> This also led to an increase in schools and classes for typing in order to prepare for future job.{{cn|date=March 2024}} Moreover, the word typewriter also became associated with the women who typed during the timeperiod.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
Questions about morals made a salacious businessman making sexual advances to a female typist into a cliché of office life, appearing in [[vaudeville]] and movies. The "[[Tijuana bible]]s" – adult comic books produced in Mexico for the American market, starting in the 1930s – often featured women typists. In one panel, a businessman in a three-piece suit, ogling his secretary's thigh, says, "Miss Higby, are you ready for—ahem!—er—dictation?"<ref name="ja">[https://newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=all Newyorker.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929165400/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=all |date=2007-09-29 }} Acocella, Joan, "The Typing Life: How writers used to write", ''[[The New Yorker]]'', April 9, 2007, a review of ''The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting'' (Cornell) 2007, by Darren Wershler-Henry</ref>
The typewriter was a useful machine during the censorship era of the Soviet government, starting during the [[Russian Civil War]] (1917–1922). [[Samizdat]] was a form of surreptitious self-publication used when the government was censoring what literature the public could see. The Soviet government signed a [[Soviet Decree|Decree on Press]] which prohibited the publishing of any written work that had not been previously officially reviewed and approved.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-08-25 |title=Decree on the Press |url=http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1917-2/organs-of-the-press/organs-of-the-press-texts/decree-on-the-press/ |access-date=2019-12-09 |website=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History |language=en-US}}</ref> Unapproved work was copied manually, most often on typewriters.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://kula.uvic.ca/ |title=KULA: knowledge creation, dissemination, and preservation studies. |date=2017 |language=en |oclc=1126556820}}</ref> In 1983, a new law required anyone who needed a typewriter to get police permission to buy or keep one. In addition, the owner would have to register a typed sample of all its letters and numbers, to ensure that any illegal literature typed with it could be traced back to its source.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bolintineanu |first1=Alexandra |last2=Thirugnanasampanthan |first2=Jaya |date=2018-11-29 |title=The Typewriter Under the Bed: Introducing Digital Humanities through Banned Books and Endangered Knowledge |journal=KULA: Knowledge Creation, Dissemination, and Preservation Studies |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=22 |doi=10.5334/kula.30 |issn=2398-4112 |doi-access=free|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1d9a/c7bd1eb4b8a3071b4b9dd0ce53996020cecb.pdf }}</ref> The typewriter became increasingly popular as the interest in prohibited books grew.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aleeva |first=Ekaterina |date=2017-07-10 |title=Samizdat: How did people in the Soviet Union circumvent state censorship |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/literature/2017/07/10/samizdat_797635 |access-date=2019-12-09 |website=www.rbth.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Writers with notable associations with typewriters ==
=== Early adopters ===
* [[Henry James]] dictated to a typist.<ref name=ja/>
* [[Mark Twain]] claimed in [[Mark Twain's Autobiography|his autobiography]] that he was the first important writer to present a publisher with a typewritten [[manuscript]], for ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' (1876). Research showed that Twain's memory was incorrect and that the first book submitted in typed form was ''[[Life on the Mississippi]]'' (1883, also by Twain).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The First Typewriter |url=http://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/firsttw.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201140007/http://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/firsttw.html |archive-date=2009-02-01 |access-date=2009-02-16 |publisher=Rehr, Darryl}}</ref>
=== Others ===
[[File:TheFaulknerPortable.jpg|thumb|[[William Faulkner]]'s [[Underwood Typewriter Company|Underwood]] Universal Portable sits in his office at [[Rowan Oak]], which is now maintained by the [[University of Mississippi]] in [[Oxford, Mississippi|Oxford]] as a museum.]]
* [[William S. Burroughs]] wrote in some of his novels – and possibly believed – that "a machine he called the 'Soft Typewriter' was writing our lives, and our books, into existence", according to a book review in ''The New Yorker''. In the [[Naked Lunch (film)|film adaptation]] of his novel ''Naked Lunch'', his typewriter is a living, insect-like entity (voiced by North American actor [[Peter Boretski]]) and actually dictates the book to him.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wershler-Henry|first=Darren Sean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38cd7wS1-RsC&q=burroughs|title=The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting|date=2007|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-4586-6|language=en}}</ref>
* [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] was accustomed to typing from awkward positions: "balancing his typewriter on his attic bed, because there was no room on his desk".<ref>Carpenter, Humphrey (1978). [[J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography]], Unwin Paperbacks p.207. {{ISBN|0 04 928039 2}}</ref>
* [[Jack Kerouac]], a fast typist at 100 words per minute, typed ''[[On the Road]]'' on a roll of paper so he would not be interrupted by having to change the paper. Within two weeks of starting to write ''On the Road'', Kerouac had one single-spaced paragraph, {{convert|120|ft}} long. Some scholars say the scroll was shelf paper; others contend it was a Thermal-fax roll; another theory is that the roll consisted of sheets of architect's paper taped together.<ref name=ja/> Kerouac himself stated that he used {{convert|100|ft|adj=on}} rolls of [[teletype]] paper.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LLpNKo09Xk|title = JACK KEROUAC on THE STEVE ALLEN SHOW with Steve Allen 1959|website = YouTube}}</ref>
* [[Don Marquis]] purposely used the limitations of a typewriter (or more precisely, a particular typist) in his ''[[archy and mehitabel]]'' series of newspaper columns, which were later compiled into a series of books. According to his literary conceit, a [[cockroach]] named "Archy" was a [[Reincarnation|reincarnated]] [[free verse|free-verse]] poet, who would type articles overnight by jumping onto the keys of a manual typewriter. The writings were typed completely in lower case, because of the cockroach's inability to generate the heavy force needed to operate the shift key. The lone exception is the poem "CAPITALS AT LAST" from ''archys life of mehitabel'', written in 1933.
=== Late users ===
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* [[Richard Polt]], a philosophy professor at [[Xavier University]] in Cincinnati who collects typewriters, edits ''ETCetera'', a quarterly magazine about historic writing machines, and is the author of the book ''The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist's Companion for the 21st Century''.<ref name="PoltBook">{{cite book |last1=Polt |first1=Richard |title=The typewriter revolution : a typist's companion for the 21st century |date=2015 |publisher=Countryman Press |location=Woodstock, VT |isbn=978-1581573114}}</ref><ref name="PoltWeb"/>
* [[William Gibson]] used a Hermes 2000 model manual typewriter to write ''[[Neuromancer]]'' and half of ''[[Count Zero]]'' before a mechanical failure and lack of replacement parts forced him to upgrade to an [[Apple IIc]] computer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Blog archive |url=http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2006_10_01_archive.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021032407/http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2006_10_01_archive.asp |archive-date=2007-10-21 |access-date=2008-10-23}}</ref>
* [[Harlan Ellison]] used typewriters for his entire career, and when he was no longer able to have them repaired, learned to do it himself; he repeatedly stated his belief that computers are bad for writing, maintaining that "Art is not supposed to be easier!"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Harlan Ellison Webderland: Interview |url=http://harlanellison.com/interview.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308110553/http://www.harlanellison.com/interview.htm |archive-date=2012-03-08 |access-date=2012-03-30 |publisher=Harlanellison.com}}</ref>
* [[Cormac McCarthy]] wrote his novels on an [[Olivetti Lettera 32]] typewriter until his death. In 2009, the Lettera he obtained from a pawn shop in 1963, on which nearly all his novels and screenplays have been written, was auctioned for charity at [[Christie's]] for US$254,500;<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kennedy |first=Randy |date=2009-12-04 |title=Cormac McCarthy's Typewriter Brings $254,500 at Auction – ArtsBeat Blog – NYTimes.com |publisher=Artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com |url=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/04/cormac-mccarthys-typewriter-brings-254500-at-auction/ |url-status=live |access-date=2010-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110528153549/http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/04/cormac-mccarthys-typewriter-brings-254500-at-auction/ |archive-date=2011-05-28}}</ref> McCarthy obtained an identical replacement for $20 to continue writing on.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Patricia Cohen |date=November 30, 2009 |title=No Country for Old Typewriters: A Well-Used One Heads to Auction |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/books/01typewriter.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904124940/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/books/01typewriter.html |archive-date=September 4, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Joiner">{{cite web |last1=Joiner |first1=James |title=The Hidden World of the Typewriter |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/09/the-hidden-world-of-the-typewriter/279523/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=2022-01-23 |language=en |date=11 September 2013}}</ref>
* [[Will Self]] explains why he uses a manual typewriter: "I think the computer user does their thinking on the screen, and the non-computer user is compelled, because he or she has to retype a whole text, to do a lot more thinking in the head."<ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-05-30 |title=Why typewriters beat computers |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7427237.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804050059/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7427237.stm |archive-date=2017-08-04}}</ref>
* [[Ted Kaczynski]] (the "Unabomber") infamously used two old manual typewriters to write his polemic essays and messages.<ref name="Joiner"/>
* Actor [[Tom Hanks]] uses and collects manual typewriters.<ref name="NY Times typewriter">{{Cite news |last=Hanks |first=Tom |title=I Am TOM. I Like to TYPE. Hear That? |work=The New York Times |date=3 August 2013 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/04/opinion/sunday/i-am-tom-i-like-to-type-hear-that.html |access-date=March 9, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Joiner"/> To control the size of his collection, he gifts autographed machines to appreciative fans and repair shops around the world.<ref name="Patkin">{{cite web |last1=Patkin |first1=Abby |title=Tom Hanks just sent a typewriter to an Arlington shop. Here's why. |url=https://www.boston.com/news/off-beat/2023/04/05/tom-hanks-sent-typewriter-arlington-shop/ |website=www.boston.com |publisher=Boston Globe Media Partners LLC |access-date=2023-04-05 |date=April 5, 2023}}</ref>
* Historian [[David McCullough]] used a Royal typewriter to compose his books.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1999 |title=The Art of Biography No. 2 |language=en |volume=Fall 1999 |issue=152 |url=https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/894/the-art-of-biography-no-2-david-mccullough |access-date=2023-12-14 |issn=0031-2037}}</ref>
* Biographer [[Robert Caro]] has used various models of the Smith Corona Electra 210 to write his biographies of [[Robert Moses]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Lyndon Johnson]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Helfand |first=Zach |date=2021-10-22 |title=Why Robert Caro Now Has Only Ten Typewriters |language=en-US |work=The New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/11/01/why-robert-caro-now-has-only-ten-typewriters |access-date=2023-12-14 |issn=0028-792X}}</ref>
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== Typewriters in popular culture ==
=== In music ===
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* [[Erik Satie]]'s 1917 score for the ballet [[Parade (ballet)|''Parade'']] includes a "''Mach. à écrire"'' as a percussion instrument, along with (elsewhere) a [[roulette wheel]] and a pistol.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_(orch._score).pdf |url=http://conquest.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/d/db/IMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_(orch._score).pdf |website=International Music Score Library Project}}</ref>
* The composer [[Leroy Anderson]] wrote ''[[The Typewriter]]'' (1950) for orchestra and typewriter, and it has since been used as the theme for numerous radio programs. The solo instrument is a real typewriter played by a percussionist. The piece was later made famous by comedian [[Jerry Lewis]] as part of his regular routine both on screen and stage, most notably in the 1963 film ''[[Who's Minding the Store?]]''.
* The [[Boston Typewriter Orchestra]] (BTO), a comedic musical percussion group, has performed at numerous art festivals, clubs, and parties since 2004.<ref name="NPR-BTO">{{Cite news |last=Hurley |first=Sean |title=Boston Orchestra Makes Typewriters Sing |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95578403 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308223426/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95578403 |archive-date=2012-03-08 |access-date=2012-03-16 |newspaper=NPR.org |publisher=National Public Radio}}</ref><ref name="BTO">{{Cite web |title=The Boston Typewriter Orchestra |url=http://www.bostontypewriterorchestra.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404062611/http://www.bostontypewriterorchestra.com/ |archive-date=2012-04-04 |access-date=2012-03-16 |publisher=Wordpress}}</ref>
* South Korean improviser Ryu Hankil frequently performs on typewriters, most prominently in his 2009 album ''Becoming Typewriter''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-03-10 |title=Becoming Typewriter : Ryu Hankil : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive |url=https://archive.org/details/BecomingTypewriter |access-date=2013-09-12}}</ref>
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=== Other ===
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[[File:Nationale kampioenschap typen in Den Haag, Bestanddeelnr 906-7443.jpg|thumb|Typewriting speed competition <br>(The Hague, 1954)]]
* The 2012 French comedy movie ''[[Populaire (film)|Populaire]]'', starring Romain Duris and Déborah François, centers on a young secretary in the 1950s striving to win typewriting speed competitions.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dehn |first=Georgia |date=27 May 2013 |title=Déborah François interview for Populaire: 'Acting felt like a fantasy' |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10076969/Deborah-Francois-interview-for-Populaire-Acting-felt-like-a-fantasy.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10076969/Deborah-Francois-interview-for-Populaire-Acting-felt-like-a-fantasy.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |accessdate=1 June 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* The manga (2015–2020) and anime (2018) ''[[Violet Evergarden]]'' series follows a disabled war veteran who learns to type because her handwriting has been impaired, and soon she becomes a popular typist.
* ''[[California Typewriter]]'', a 2016 documentary film, investigates the culture of typewriter enthusiasts, including an [[eponymous]] repair store in Berkeley, California.
<!-- Editors: Please try to keep this section sorted in roughly chronological order -->
== Forensic examination ==
Typewritten documents may be examined by [[questioned document examination|forensic document examiners]]. This is done primarily to determine 1) the make and/or model of the typewriter used to produce a document, or 2) whether or not a particular suspect typewriter might have been used to produce a document.<ref name=Kelly>{{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Mary W. |title=Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents, Second Edition (Forensic and Police Science Series) |publisher=CRC Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8493-2044-6 |edition=2nd |location=Boca Raton, FL |pages=177–189 |chapter=Typewriters}}</ref>
The determination of a make and/or model of typewriter is a 'classification' problem and several systems have been developed for this purpose.<ref name=Kelly /> These include the original Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version)<ref>Haas, Josef. (1972), "ATLAS der Schreibmaschinenschrift, PICA".</ref> and (Non-Pica version)<ref>Haas, Josef and Bernhard Haas. (1985), "ATLAS der Schreibmaschinenschrift, Non-PICA".</ref> and the TYPE system developed by Philip Bouffard,<ref>Bouffard, P.D. (1992), A PC-Based Typewriter Typestyle Classification System Standard, presented at the American Academy of Forensic Sciences meeting, New Orleans, LA.</ref> the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]]'s Termatrex Typewriter classification system,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hodgins |first=Cpl. J.H. |date=January 1963 |title=A Punchcard System for Identification of Typescript |journal=Journal of Forensic Sciences |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=68–81}}</ref> and [[Interpol]]'s typewriter classification system,<ref>Interpol (1969) "System for Identification of Typewriter Makes Using the Card Index", ICPO-Interpol</ref> among others.<ref name=Kelly />
The earliest reference in fictional literature to the potential identification of a typewriter as having produced a document was by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote the Sherlock Holmes short story "[[A Case of Identity]]" in 1891.<ref name="crown">{{Cite journal |last=Crown |first=David A. |date=March 1967 |title=Landmarks in Typewriting Identification |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5434&context=jclc |journal=Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=105–111 |doi=10.2307/1141378 |jstor=1141378 |quote=The earliest known reference to the identification potential of typewriting, curiously enough, appears in 'A Case of Identity', a Sherlock Holmes story by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle...}}</ref>
In non-fiction, the first [[forensic document examination|document examiner]]<ref name=crown /> to describe how a typewriter might be identified was William E. Hagan who wrote, in 1894, "All typewriter machines, even when using the same kind of type, become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hagan |first=William E. |url=https://archive.org/details/disputedhandwrit00haga |title=Disputed Handwriting |publisher=Banks & Brothers |year=1894 |location=Albany, NY |page=[https://archive.org/details/disputedhandwrit00haga/page/203 203] |chapter=Chapter VIII}}</ref> Other early discussions of the topic were provided by [[Albert S. Osborn|A. S. Osborn]] in his 1908 treatise, ''Typewriting as Evidence'',<ref>{{Citation |last=Osborn |first=Albert S. |year=1908 |title=Typewriting as Evidence |publisher=The Genesee Press |page=23 |place=Rochester, NY}}</ref> and again in his 1929 textbook, ''Questioned Documents''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Osborn |first=Albert S. |title=Questioned Documents |publisher=Patterson Smith |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-87585-207-2 |edition=2nd |location=Montclair, NJ |page=1042 |chapter=Questioned Typewriting |orig-year=1929}}</ref>
A modern description of the examination procedure is laid out in ASTM Standard E2494-08 (Standard Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items).<ref name="astm_TW">[http://www.astm.org/ ASTM International] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060331053643/http://www.astm.org/ |date=2006-03-31 }}, These guides are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences and the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E30.02 on Questioned Documents. Copies of ASTM Standards can be obtained directly from [[ASTM International]].</ref>
Typewriter examination was used in the [[Leopold and Loeb]] and [[Alger Hiss]] cases.
In the [[Eastern Bloc]], typewriters (together with [[printing press]]es, [[copy machine]]s, and later [[printer (computing)|computer printers]]) were a controlled technology, with [[secret police]] in charge of maintaining records of the typewriters and their owners.{{Cn|date=January 2024}} In the [[Soviet Union]], the [[First Department]] of each organization sent data on organization's typewriters to the [[KGB]].{{Cn|date=January 2024}} This posed a significant risk for dissidents and [[samizdat]] authors. In [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]], according to State Council Decree No. 98 of March 28, 1983, owning a typewriter, both by businesses or by private persons, was subject to an approval given by the local police authorities. People previously convicted of any crime or those who because of their behaviour were considered to be "a danger to public order or to the security of the state" were refused approval. In addition, once a year, typewriter owners had to take the typewriter to the local police station, where they would be asked to type a sample of all the typewriter's characters. It was also forbidden to borrow, lend, or repair typewriters other than at the places that had been authorized by the police.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Betea |first=Lavinia |date=February 13, 2009 |title=La Miliţie cu maşina de scris |url=http://jurnalul.ro/scinteia/special/la-militie-cu-masina-de-scris-319045.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904043133/http://jurnalul.ro/scinteia/special/la-militie-cu-masina-de-scris-319045.html |archive-date=September 4, 2015 |access-date=August 24, 2014 |publisher=jurnalul.ro |language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=1986 |title=News & Notes: The Great Rumanian Typewriter Decree |journal=[[Index on Censorship]] |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=2–3 |doi=10.1080/03064228608534006|s2cid=220951010 }}</ref>
==Collections==
Public and private collections of typewriters exist around the world, including:<ref name="Ways">{{cite web |last1=Ways |first1=Mark |title=10 Typewriter Museums You Should Visit |url=https://www.typinglounge.com/typewriter-museums |website=Typing Lounge |access-date=2022-01-23 |date=October 28, 2021}}</ref>
* Schreibmaschinenmuseum Peter Mitterhofer (Parcines, Italy)<ref>{{cite web |title=Schreib Maschinen Museum |url=https://www.schreibmaschinenmuseum.com/en/ |website=Typewritermuseum |access-date=2022-01-23}}</ref>
* Museo della Macchina da Scrivere (Milan, Italy)<ref>{{cite web |title=Museo della Macchina da Scrivere |url=https://www.museodellamacchinadascrivere.org |website=Museo della macchina da scrivere |access-date=2022-01-23 |language=it}}</ref>
* Liverpool Typewriter Museum (Liverpool, England)
*[[Museum of Printing#Collection|Museum of Printing]] – MoP (Haverhill, Massachusetts, US)
* Chestnut Ridge Typewriter Museum (Fairmont, West Virginia, US)
* Technical Museum of the Empordà (Figueres, Girona, Spain)
* Musée de la machine à écrire (Lausanne, Switzerland)<ref>{{cite web |title=Musée de la Machine à Ecrire |url=https://www.perrier-sa.ch/musee/ |website=Musée de la machine à écrire |publisher=Perrier Machines de Bureau, Lausanne |access-date=2022-01-23 |language=fr}}</ref>
* Lu Hanbin Typewriter Museum Shanghai (Shanghai, China)
* Wattens Typewriter Museum (Wattens, Austria)
* German Typewriter Museum (Bayreuth, Germany)
* [[Tayfun Talipoğlu Typewriter Museum]] (Odunpazarı, Eskişehir, Turkey)
Several online-only virtual museums collect and display information about typewriters and their history:
* Virtual Typewriter Museum<ref>{{cite web |last=Robert |first=Paul |title=The Virtual Typewriter Museum |url=http://www.typewritermuseum.org/index.html |access-date=2022-01-23}}</ref>
* Chuck & Rich's Antique Typewriter Website
* Mr. Martin's Typewriter Museum<ref>{{cite web |title=Typewriter Museum |url=http://www.mrmartinweb.com/type.htm |website=www.mrmartinweb.com |access-date=2022-01-23}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center">
1864 Schreibmaschine Peter Mitterhofer.jpg|Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter
Skrivekugle 1870.jpg|[[Hansen Writing Ball]], invented in 1865 (1870 model)
TypewriterPatent1868.jpg|1868 [[patent drawing]] for the Sholes, Glidden, and Soule typewriter
Hammond 1B typewriter.png|Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881
1910s typewriter.jpg|Hammond 1B, as used by a newspaper office in [[Saskatoon]] around 1910
Quartermaster Corps soldiers in typewriter repair shop at Tours, France, 1919 (29992301794).jpg|US Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919
Typewriters.jpg|Typebars in a 1920s typewriter
Chinese typewriter.jpg|[[Chinese typewriter]] produced by [[Shuangge]], with 2,450 characters
Japanese typewriter SH-280.jpg|[[Japanese typewriter]] SH-280, a small machine with 2,268 characters
Typemachine binnenkant.JPG|[[:commons:Category:Hermes typewriters|Hermes 3000 typewriter]]
1920s Underwood SE layout.JPG|1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout
Chinese typewriter at Deutsche Technikmuseum.jpg|Chinese typewriter at ''Deutsches Technikmuseum''
MEK II-327.jpg|typewriter robotron S 1001 from [[VEB Robotron]]-Elektronik at the [[East Germany|GDR]], this sample is owned by the [[Museum Europäischer Kulturen|MEK]]
ماشین تحریر مظفر الدین شاه قاجار.jpg|Personal typewriter of [[Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar]], the fifth Qajar king of Persia (Iran), made in late 19th century
Olivetti Studio 45 Green Typewriter.jpg|An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter
</gallery>
== See also ==
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Chorded keyboard]]
* [[Computer keyboard]]
* [[Duplicating machines]]
* [[Friden Flexowriter]]
* [[JOHNNIAC]]
* [[Letter (alphabet)]]
* [[Projection keyboard]]
* [[Teletype Model 33]]
* [[Typeface]]
* [[Typescript (manuscript)|Typescript]]
* [[Typewriter desk]]
* [[UNIVAC 1102]]
}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
=== Patents ===
* {{US patent|79265|US79265}} – Improvement in Type-Writing Machines (the patent that laid the basis for the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer)
* {{US patent|349026|US349026}} – typewriter ribbon, by George K. Anderson of Memphis, Tennessee.
== Further reading ==
{{lacking ISBN|date=April 2023}}
* Adler, M.H. (1973). ''The Writing Machine: A History of the Typewriter''. Allen and Unwin.
* Beeching, Wilfred A. (1974). ''Century of the Typewriter''. St. Martin's Press. pp. 276 Beeching was the Director of the British Typewriter Museum.
* Casillo, Anthony (2017), ''Typewriters: Iconic Machines from the Golden Age of Mechanical Writing''. Chronical Books. pp. 208 Foreword by Tom Hanks.
*{{cite book |last1=Polt |first1=Richard |title=The typewriter revolution : a typist's companion for the 21st century |date=2015 |publisher=Countryman Press |location=Woodstock, VT |isbn=978-1581573114}}
*{{Cite book |last=Wichary |first=Marcin |title=Shift Happens |publisher=Penmor |year=2023 |location=Lewiston, Maine |url=https://shifthappens.site/}}
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.eclectisaurus.com/tmtypewritermuseum.html The Eclectisaurus online Museum of Typewriters by manufacturers from Adler to Voss.]
* {{YouTube|id=2y3HK9yTqYo|title=Most Definitely My Type}} Video showcasing historical typewriters, with soundtrack by [[Boston Typewriter Orchestra]]
* [http://www.maquinasantigasdeescrever.com.br/historia.html Oliveira Typewriter (em português)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090126014136/http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/etc.html Early Typewriter Collectors' Association]
* [http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/ The Classic Typewriter Page]
=== Revival ===
* [http://qctimes.com/news/opinion/editorial/columnists/bill-wundram/article_03dd1536-4423-11de-a7be-001cc4c002e0.html Ding, click clack – typewriter is back] –''[[Quad-City Times]]'', May 18, 2009
* [http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2011/12/19/Typewriters-experience-a-comeback/UPI-30661324327372/ Typewriters experience a comeback] – [[United Press International]], Dec. 19, 2011
* [http://typewritermovie.com/ Documentary Film – The Typewriter (In the 21st Century)] – 2012
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/10173645/Kremlin-returns-to-typewriters-to-avoid-computer-leaks.html Kremlin returns to typewriters to avoid computer leaks] – ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', July 11, 2013
* [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/15/germany-typewriters-espionage-nsa-spying-surveillance Germany 'may revert to typewriters' to counter hi-tech espionage] – ''[[The Guardian]]'', July 15, 2014
{{Typewriter}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Typewriters|*]]
[[Category:Text]]
[[Category:1873 introductions]]
[[Category:Italian inventions]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:19th-century inventions]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,15 +1,29 @@
-{{Short description|Mechanical device for typing characters}}
-{{Other uses}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
-[[File:MEK II-371.jpg|thumb|Mechanical desktop typewriters, such as this [[Underwood Typewriter Company|Underwood Typewriter]], were long-time standards in government agencies, newsrooms, and offices.]]
-[[File:Adler Wikipedia.ogv|thumb|A typewriter being used to type "Wikipedia".]]
+Name: Khanyisile
+Surname: Billy
+KwaMfundo high school
+Subject: Geography
+Assignment
-A '''typewriter''' is a [[machine|mechanical]] or [[electromechanical]] machine for [[typing]] characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of [[Button (control)|keys]], and each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a [[Sort (typesetting)|type element]]. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term 'typewriter' was also applied to a ''person'' who used such a device.<ref>{{cite OED2|typewriter (2)|volume=18|page=789}}</ref>
-The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874,<ref>{{Cite book |first=James W. |last=Cortada |title=Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 1865–1956 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4008-7276-3 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |archive-date=2018-06-26 |url-status=live}}</ref> but did not become common in offices in the [[United States]] until after the mid-1880s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Typewriters |url=https://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227181833/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |archive-date=December 27, 2016 |website=www.officemuseum.com}}</ref> The typewriter quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by professional writers, in offices, in business correspondence in private homes, and by students preparing written assignments.
-Typewriters were a standard fixture in most offices up to the 1980s. After that, they began to be largely supplanted by personal computers running [[word processing]] software. Nevertheless, typewriters remain common in some parts of the world. For example, typewriters are still used in many Indian cities and towns, especially in roadside and legal offices, due to a lack of continuous, reliable electricity.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Typewriters, Writing a Social History of Urban India |publisher=The Wire |url=https://thewire.in/books/with-great-truth-and-regards-typewriter |access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref>
-The [[QWERTY]] [[keyboard layout]], developed for typewriters in the 1870s, remains the [[de facto standard]] for English-language [[computer keyboards]]. The origins of this layout still need to be clarified.<ref name="Smithsonian"/> Similar typewriter keyboards, with layouts optimised for other languages and orthographies, emerged soon afterward, and their layouts have also become standard for computer keyboards in their respective markets.
+
+
+How the latitude and altitude affects climate?
+Latitude and altitude both play important roles in edetermining the climate of a region, including South Africa
+1.Latitude : South Africa is allocated in the Southern hemisphere and spans a wide range of latitudes from about 2.2 5 's to 35's.The latitude of a region affects the amount of solar energy it receives, which in turn influences its climate.
+
+
+The higher latitudes in South Africa, such as areas closer to 35's,experience cooler temperatures compared to regions closer to the equator. This is because the Sun's rays are more spread out a higher latitudes, resulting in less direction heating.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+The latitude also influences the length of daylight hours, with longer days in summer and shorter days in winter. This variation in day light can affect the temperature and weather patterns in different regions of South Africa
== History ==
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9 => '1.Latitude : South Africa is allocated in the Southern hemisphere and spans a wide range of latitudes from about 2.2 5 's to 35's.The latitude of a region affects the amount of solar energy it receives, which in turn influences its climate. ',
10 => '',
11 => '',
12 => 'The higher latitudes in South Africa, such as areas closer to 35's,experience cooler temperatures compared to regions closer to the equator. This is because the Sun's rays are more spread out a higher latitudes, resulting in less direction heating. ',
13 => '',
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15 => '',
16 => '',
17 => '',
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22 => 'The latitude also influences the length of daylight hours, with longer days in summer and shorter days in winter. This variation in day light can affect the temperature and weather patterns in different regions of South Africa'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '{{Short description|Mechanical device for typing characters}}',
1 => '{{Other uses}}',
2 => '{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}',
3 => '[[File:MEK II-371.jpg|thumb|Mechanical desktop typewriters, such as this [[Underwood Typewriter Company|Underwood Typewriter]], were long-time standards in government agencies, newsrooms, and offices.]]',
4 => '[[File:Adler Wikipedia.ogv|thumb|A typewriter being used to type "Wikipedia".]]',
5 => 'A '''typewriter''' is a [[machine|mechanical]] or [[electromechanical]] machine for [[typing]] characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of [[Button (control)|keys]], and each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a [[Sort (typesetting)|type element]]. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term 'typewriter' was also applied to a ''person'' who used such a device.<ref>{{cite OED2|typewriter (2)|volume=18|page=789}}</ref>',
6 => 'The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874,<ref>{{Cite book |first=James W. |last=Cortada |title=Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 1865–1956 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4008-7276-3 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |archive-date=2018-06-26 |url-status=live}}</ref> but did not become common in offices in the [[United States]] until after the mid-1880s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Typewriters |url=https://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227181833/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm |archive-date=December 27, 2016 |website=www.officemuseum.com}}</ref> The typewriter quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by professional writers, in offices, in business correspondence in private homes, and by students preparing written assignments.',
7 => 'Typewriters were a standard fixture in most offices up to the 1980s. After that, they began to be largely supplanted by personal computers running [[word processing]] software. Nevertheless, typewriters remain common in some parts of the world. For example, typewriters are still used in many Indian cities and towns, especially in roadside and legal offices, due to a lack of continuous, reliable electricity.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Typewriters, Writing a Social History of Urban India |publisher=The Wire |url=https://thewire.in/books/with-great-truth-and-regards-typewriter |access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref>',
8 => 'The [[QWERTY]] [[keyboard layout]], developed for typewriters in the 1870s, remains the [[de facto standard]] for English-language [[computer keyboards]]. The origins of this layout still need to be clarified.<ref name="Smithsonian"/> Similar typewriter keyboards, with layouts optimised for other languages and orthographies, emerged soon afterward, and their layouts have also become standard for computer keyboards in their respective markets.'
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69 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10076969/Deborah-Francois-interview-for-Populaire-Acting-felt-like-a-fantasy.html',
70 => 'https://www.typinglounge.com/typewriter-museums',
71 => 'https://www.schreibmaschinenmuseum.com/en/',
72 => 'https://www.museodellamacchinadascrivere.org/',
73 => 'https://www.perrier-sa.ch/musee/',
74 => 'https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/09/the-hidden-world-of-the-typewriter/279523/',
75 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38',
76 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38',
77 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20161227181833/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm',
78 => 'https://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm',
79 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LLpNKo09Xk',
80 => 'https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/may-2009/erasing-history',
81 => 'https://orwhatyouwill.wordpress.com/2010/02/18/escaping-the-bonds-of-erasable-bond/',
82 => 'https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/19/inventing-liquid-paper-got-a-secretary-fired-and-then-made-her-rich.html',
83 => 'https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00437980&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA435533172&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs',
84 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/306437',
85 => 'https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-chinese-typewriter-snap-story.html',
86 => 'https://blog.ansi.org/2016/05/invention-of-backspace-key/',
87 => 'https://danielmiessler.com/study/crlf/',
88 => 'https://www.physics.wisc.edu/ingersollmuseum/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2020/04/scientificamerican0506-80-WhenSlideRulesRuled.pdf',
89 => 'http://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/may/24/typewriter-versus-wordprocessor-technological-innovation',
90 => 'http://xahlee.info/kbd/space-cadet_design.html',
91 => 'https://typographyforlawyers.com/tabs-and-tab-stops.html',
92 => 'https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/t/tty.htm',
93 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=PeADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA128',
94 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/books/01typewriter.html',
95 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140904124940/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/books/01typewriter.html',
96 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/15/germany-typewriters-espionage-nsa-spying-surveillance',
97 => 'https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124766&CON_LNG=ENG',
98 => 'https://newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=1',
99 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011413/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=1',
100 => 'http://museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org/scrittura/',
101 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170621081930/http://museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org/scrittura/',
102 => 'http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill_Henry/MillHenryPatents.htm',
103 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121128013806/http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill_Henry/MillHenryPatents.htm',
104 => 'http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/keyboard.html',
105 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160905195941/http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/keyboard.html',
106 => 'http://www.yourguidetoitaly.com/italian-inventors.html',
107 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=Om_KVDRCK8EC&pg=PA150',
108 => 'https://todayinsci.com/Events/Typewriter/Chirographer-SciAm.htm',
109 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150327043255/http://todayinsci.com/Events/Typewriter/Chirographer-SciAm.htm',
110 => 'https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/scienza-tecnologia/schede/ST120-00001/',
111 => 'http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=/moa/scia/scia1017/&tif=00011.TIF&cite=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid%3DABF2204-1017-3',
112 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=wN4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA751',
113 => 'https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co37725/two-hammond-ideal-typewriters-one-with-case-typewriter',
114 => 'https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co38149/fitch-typewriter-1891-typewriters',
115 => 'https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co37730/gardner-typewriter-c-1893-typewriter',
116 => 'https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co38171/underwood-1-typewriter-1897-typewriter',
117 => 'https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201721',
118 => 'https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201721/page/n234',
119 => 'http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm',
120 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140102201621/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm',
121 => 'https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=5383',
122 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=kJp22rZDOZQC',
123 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJp22rZDOZQC',
124 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20100806034158/http://dig.lib.niu.edu/ISHS/ishs-1956autumn/ishs-1956autumn-271.pdf',
125 => 'http://dig.lib.niu.edu/ISHS/ishs-1956autumn/ishs-1956autumn-271.pdf',
126 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120427203920/http://www.aph.org/museum/braillewriters/1.html',
127 => 'http://www.aph.org/museum/braillewriters/1.html',
128 => 'https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/drawing-for-a-typewriter',
129 => 'https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/Records/Article/CS2697',
130 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/4632060',
131 => 'http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters_index.htm',
132 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160702212611/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters_index.htm',
133 => 'https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/simplex.html',
134 => 'http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/brands/index.php3?machine=indexmignon2&cat=is',
135 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20161003035122/http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/brands/index.php3?machine=indexmignon2&cat=is',
136 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/44166285',
137 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1876Natur..14...43.',
138 => 'https://www.gadgetexplained.com/2015/11/mechanical-typewriter-explained-how.html',
139 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=4x1LAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA385',
140 => 'https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/tw-history.html',
141 => 'https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_informal.html',
142 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=mhUwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA205',
143 => 'http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/index.php3?machine=daugh&cat=kf',
144 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20110729132951/http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/index.php3?machine=daugh&cat=kf',
145 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130511211636/http://machinesoflovinggrace.com/ptf/VisDaughertyPittsburg.html',
146 => 'http://machinesoflovinggrace.com/ptf/VisDaughertyPittsburg.html',
147 => 'https://type-writer.org/?p=1765',
148 => 'https://www.daskeyboard.com/blog/typing-through-time-the-history-of-the-keyboard/',
149 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=DngbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA537',
150 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=MXM_RL4UWe0C&pg=PA115',
151 => 'http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/pro05.htm',
152 => 'http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtoprepareamimeographstencil2.htm',
153 => 'https://archive.today/20121016144524/http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtoprepareamimeographstencil2.htm',
154 => 'https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/noiselessportable.html',
155 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/41357995',
156 => 'http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC100.pdf',
157 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160730133043/http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC100.pdf',
158 => 'http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC033.pdf',
159 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160730133642/http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC033.pdf',
160 => 'http://patimg2.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=01286351&homeurl=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D1286351.PN.%2526OS%3DPN/1286351%2526RS%3DPN/1286351&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page',
161 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20161225235913/http://patimg2.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=01286351&homeurl=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D1286351.PN.%2526OS%3DPN/1286351%2526RS%3DPN/1286351&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page',
162 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA605',
163 => 'https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_history.html',
164 => 'https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1155510',
165 => 'http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2240.html',
166 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130526135454/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2240.html',
167 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA83',
168 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA83',
169 => 'https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html',
170 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170627172904/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html',
171 => 'https://www.ibm.com/blogs/industries/selectric-typewriter-dancers/',
172 => 'https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/selectric/',
173 => 'http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/selectric/',
174 => 'https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/07/ibm-reinvented-the-typewriter-with-the-selectric-50-years-ago/242624/',
175 => 'https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254',
176 => 'https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_office2.html',
177 => 'https://obsoletemedia.org/ibm-mtst/',
178 => 'https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone2.html',
179 => 'https://www.superiortelegram.com/news/quickprint-closes-after-72-years-presses-roll-elsewhere',
180 => 'http://www.covingtoninnovations.com/selectric/',
181 => 'http://www.smithcorona.com/history.html',
182 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170322134218/http://www.smithcorona.com/history.html',
183 => 'https://mid2mod.blogspot.com/2011/08/back-in-day-typing-erasers.html',
184 => 'https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US4620808',
185 => 'http://mindmachine.co.uk/products/04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html#PWP-series',
186 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130528120612/http://mindmachine.co.uk/products/04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html#PWP-series',
187 => 'https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203221938-5/women-clerical-workers-typewriter-writing-machine-margery-davies',
188 => 'https://historythings.com/life-changing-invention-typewriters/',
189 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/12/business/company-news-ibm-to-complete-unit-sale-in-march.html',
190 => 'https://www.boston.com/jobs/news/articles/2009/02/01/typewriters_ring_on_in_the_fringes/',
191 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130826014156/http://www.boston.com/jobs/news/articles/2009/02/01/typewriters_ring_on_in_the_fringes/',
192 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20110503045910/http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/death-typewriter-dont-write-it-yet',
193 => 'http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/death-typewriter-dont-write-it-yet',
194 => 'http://fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com/news/2011/06/15/5574540.htm',
195 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120426011651/http://fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com/news/2011/06/15/5574540.htm',
196 => 'http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html',
197 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20110429015137/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html',
198 => 'http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1',
199 => 'https://archive.today/20120707111148/http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1',
200 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20110904024830/http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/129512/reports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature/',
201 => 'http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/129512/reports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature/',
202 => 'https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/26/135740246/has-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really',
203 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120313204452/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/26/135740246/has-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really',
204 => 'http://www.minyanville.com/mvpremium/2011/04/25/contrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry',
205 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160224204135/http://www.minyanville.com/mvpremium/2011/04/25/contrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry/',
206 => 'https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20391538',
207 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20131219184806/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20391538',
208 => 'http://mundoestranho.abril.com.br/materia/ainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever',
209 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120425025818/http://mundoestranho.abril.com.br/materia/ainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever',
210 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220951010',
211 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20210606050123/https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/simplex.html',
212 => 'https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2573562',
213 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/2573562',
214 => 'https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021911816000577',
215 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9118',
216 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2F014043a0',
217 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-9114',
218 => 'https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203221938',
219 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331',
220 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036875148',
221 => 'https://doi.org/10.1086%2F467198',
222 => 'https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs102090100012',
223 => 'https://doi.org/10.2307%2F306437',
224 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0037-6752',
225 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1126556820',
226 => 'https://doi.org/10.5334%2Fkula.30',
227 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2398-4112',
228 => 'https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1141378',
229 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/1141378',
230 => 'https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03064228608534006',
231 => 'http://sevenels.net/typewriters/3banks.htm',
232 => 'https://www.typewriters101.com/collection.html',
233 => 'https://www.si.edu/object/corona-typewriter:nmah_849921',
234 => 'https://www.typewriters101.com/store/p430/1921_Corona_Folding_No._3.html',
235 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=G_qQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA283',
236 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=emcqDwAAQBAJ',
237 => 'https://www.boston.com/news/off-beat/2023/04/05/tom-hanks-sent-typewriter-arlington-shop/',
238 => 'http://tools.wmflabs.org/citations/process_page.php?edit=template&slow=1&user=Biblio+template+user&page=Typewriter',
239 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85139131',
240 => 'https://thewire.in/books/with-great-truth-and-regards-typewriter',
241 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2037',
242 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-792X',
243 => 'https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/894/the-art-of-biography-no-2-david-mccullough',
244 => 'https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/11/01/why-robert-caro-now-has-only-ten-typewriters',
245 => 'http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1d9a/c7bd1eb4b8a3071b4b9dd0ce53996020cecb.pdf',
246 => 'http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558590305171',
247 => 'http://www.archives.godrej.com/assets/pdf/The_Archives_Times_Mar_Apr_2013.pdf',
248 => 'http://www.archives.godrej.com/assets/pdf/Steno's_Handbook.pdf',
249 => 'https://shifthappens.site/',
250 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=AuIOu97MduQC',
251 => 'https://www.moma.org/collection/works/4576',
252 => 'https://www.si.edu/es/object/valentine:chndm_1986-99-40-a_b',
253 => 'https://designmuseum.org/designers/ettore-sottsass',
254 => 'https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O146042/valentine-typewriter-sottsass-ettore/'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p>Name: Khanyisile
Surname: Billy
KwaMfundo high school
Subject: Geography
Assignment
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
How the latitude and altitude affects climate?
Latitude and altitude both play important roles in edetermining the climate of a region, including South Africa
1.Latitude : South Africa is allocated in the Southern hemisphere and spans a wide range of latitudes from about 2.2 5 's to 35's.The latitude of a region affects the amount of solar energy it receives, which in turn influences its climate.
</p><p><br />
The higher latitudes in South Africa, such as areas closer to 35's,experience cooler temperatures compared to regions closer to the equator. This is because the Sun's rays are more spread out a higher latitudes, resulting in less direction heating.
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p>The latitude also influences the length of daylight hours, with longer days in summer and shorter days in winter. This variation in day light can affect the temperature and weather patterns in different regions of South Africa
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Hansen_Writing_Ball"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Hansen Writing Ball</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Index_typewriter"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Index typewriter</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Other_typewriters"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Other typewriters</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Standardization"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Standardization</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Frontstriking"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Frontstriking</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Shift_key"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Shift key</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-9"><a href="#Three-bank_typewriters"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Three-bank typewriters</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Tab_key"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Tab key</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Dead_keys"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Dead keys</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Character_sizes"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Character sizes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Color"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Color</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#"Noiseless"_designs"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.7</span> <span class="toctext">"Noiseless" designs</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Electric_designs"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Electric designs</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Early_electric_models"><span class="tocnumber">1.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Early electric models</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#IBM_Selectric"><span class="tocnumber">1.6.2</span> <span class="toctext">IBM Selectric</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Later_electric_models"><span class="tocnumber">1.6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Later electric models</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Electronic_typewriters"><span class="tocnumber">1.6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Electronic typewriters</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Decline"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Decline</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Correction_technologies"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Correction technologies</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Typewriter_erasers"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Typewriter erasers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Erasing_shield"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Erasing shield</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Erasable_bond"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Erasable bond</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Correction_fluid"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Correction fluid</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Legacy"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Legacy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Keyboard_layouts"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Keyboard layouts</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#QWERTY"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">QWERTY</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Other_layouts_for_English"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Other layouts for English</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Keyboards_for_other_languages"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Keyboards for other languages</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Typewriter_conventions"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Typewriter conventions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Terminology_repurposed_for_the_computer_age"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Terminology repurposed for the computer age</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Social_effects"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Social effects</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Writers_with_notable_associations_with_typewriters"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Writers with notable associations with typewriters</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Early_adopters"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Early adopters</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Others"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Others</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Late_users"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Late users</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Typewriters_in_popular_culture"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Typewriters in popular culture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#In_music"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">In music</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Other"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Other</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#Forensic_examination"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Forensic examination</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Collections"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Collections</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Gallery"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Gallery</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Patents"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">Patents</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-47"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-48"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#Revival"><span class="tocnumber">13.1</span> <span class="toctext">Revival</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection">
<a role="button"
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</h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/220px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/330px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/440px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2376" /></a><figcaption>Peter Mitterhofer's typewriter prototype (1864)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Although many modern typewriters have one of several similar designs, their invention was incremental, developed by numerous inventors working independently or in competition with each other over a series of decades. As with the <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a>, the telephone, and <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraph</a>, several people contributed insights and inventions that eventually resulted in ever more commercially successful instruments. Historians have estimated that some form of the typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a workable design.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some early typing instruments include:
</p>
<ul><li>In 1575, an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazetto, invented the <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">scrittura tattile</i></span>, a machine to impress letters in papers.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1714, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Mill" title="Henry Mill">Henry Mill</a> obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. The patent shows that this machine was created: "[he] hath by his great study and paines & expence invented and brought to perfection an artificial machine or method for impressing or transcribing of letters, one after another, as in writing, whereby all writing whatsoever may be engrossed in paper or parchment so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print; that the said machine or method may be of great use in settlements and public records, the impression being deeper and more lasting than any other writing, and not to be erased or counterfeited without manifest discovery."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1802, Italian Agostino Fantoni developed a particular typewriter to enable his <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blind</a> sister to write.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup></li>
<li>Between 1801 and 1808, Italian <a href="/wiki/Pellegrino_Turri" title="Pellegrino Turri">Pellegrino Turri</a> invented a typewriter for his blind friend Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1823, Italian Pietro Conti da Cilavegna invented a new model of the typewriter, the <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">tachigrafo</i></span>, also known as <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">tachitipo</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1829, American <a href="/wiki/William_Austin_Burt" title="William Austin Burt">William Austin Burt</a> patented a machine called the "<a href="/wiki/Typographer_(typewriter)" title="Typographer (typewriter)">Typographer</a>" which, in common with many other early machines, is listed as the "first typewriter". The London <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum,_London" title="Science Museum, London">Science Museum</a> describes it merely as "the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented", but even that claim may be excessive since Turri's invention pre-dates it.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>By the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need to mechanize the writing process. <a href="/wiki/Stenographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Stenographer">Stenographers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraphers</a> could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, whereas a writer with a pen was limited to a maximum of 30 words per minute (the 1853 speed record).<sup id="cite_ref-Utterback_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utterback-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olivetti-Valentine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Olivetti-Valentine.jpg/220px-Olivetti-Valentine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Olivetti-Valentine.jpg/330px-Olivetti-Valentine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Olivetti-Valentine.jpg/440px-Olivetti-Valentine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>The 1969 <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Valentine" title="Olivetti Valentine">Olivetti Valentine</a> typewriter, featured in the permanent collections of the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cooper_Hewitt,_Smithsonian_Design_Museum" title="Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum">Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum</a> in New York;<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> London's <a href="/wiki/Design_Museum" title="Design Museum">Design Museum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/220px--Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="44" data-mwtitle="Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.m3u8" type="application/vnd.apple.mpegurl" data-transcodekey="m3u8" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Video the <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Valentine" title="Olivetti Valentine">Olivetti <i>Valentine</i></a> typewriter in use.</figcaption></figure>
<p>From 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>American <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thurber_(inventor)" title="Charles Thurber (inventor)">Charles Thurber</a> developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was created as an aid to blind people, such as the 1845 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thurber_(inventor)#Career" title="Charles Thurber (inventor)">Chirographer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1855, the Italian <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Ravizza" title="Giuseppe Ravizza">Giuseppe Ravizza</a> created a prototype typewriter called <i>Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti</i> ("Scribe <a href="/wiki/Harpsichord" title="Harpsichord">harpsichord</a>, or machine for writing with keys"). It was an advanced machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1861, Father Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood and knives. In that same year, the Brazilian emperor <a href="/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Pedro II of Brazil">D. Pedro II</a>, presented a gold medal to Father Azevedo for this invention. Many Brazilian people, as well as the Brazilian federal government recognize Fr. Azevedo as the inventor of the typewriter, a claim that has been the subject of some controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1865, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Jonathon_Pratt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Jonathon Pratt (page does not exist)">John Jonathon Pratt</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Centre,_Alabama" title="Centre, Alabama">Centre, Alabama</a> (US), built a machine called the <i>Pterotype</i> which appeared in an 1867 <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i> article<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> and inspired other inventors.</li>
<li>Between 1864 and 1867, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Mitterhofer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Mitterhofer (page does not exist)">Peter Mitterhofer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Mitterhofer" class="extiw" title="de:Peter Mitterhofer">de</a>]</span>, a carpenter from <a href="/wiki/South_Tyrol" title="South Tyrol">South Tyrol</a> (then part of <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a>) developed several models and a fully functioning prototype typewriter in 1867.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></li>
<li>By 1900, notable typewriter manufacturers included <a href="/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons" title="E. Remington and Sons">E. Remington and Sons</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Godrej_Group" title="Godrej Group">Godrej</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Typewriter_Company" title="Imperial Typewriter Company">Imperial Typewriter Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Typewriter_Company" title="Oliver Typewriter Company">Oliver Typewriter Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Typewriter_Company" title="Royal Typewriter Company">Royal Typewriter Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smith_Corona" title="Smith Corona">Smith Corona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Underwood_Typewriter_Company" title="Underwood Typewriter Company">Underwood Typewriter Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facit" title="Facit">Facit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adler_(cars_and_motorcycle)" title="Adler (cars and motorcycle)">Adler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Olympia-Werke" title="Olympia-Werke">Olympia-Werke</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>After the market had matured under the market dominance of large companies from Britain, Europe and the United States — but before the advent of daisywheel and electonic machines — the typewriter market faced strong competition from less expensive typewriters from Asia, including <a href="/wiki/Brother_Industries" title="Brother Industries">Brother Industries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver_Seiko_Ltd." title="Silver Seiko Ltd.">Silver Seiko Ltd.</a> of Japan.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG/220px-TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG/330px-TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG/440px-TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1541" data-file-height="1155" /></a><figcaption>An Elliott-Fisher book typewriter on display at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historic_Archive_and_Museum_of_Mining&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historic Archive and Museum of Mining (page does not exist)">Historic Archive and Museum of Mining</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pachuca" title="Pachuca">Pachuca</a>, Mexico</figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hansen_Writing_Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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</h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malling_Hansen,1867,_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg/170px-Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg/255px-Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg/340px-Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1329" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a> was the first typewriter manufactured commercially (1870)</figcaption></figure>
<p>In 1865, Rev. <a href="/wiki/Rasmus_Malling-Hansen" title="Rasmus Malling-Hansen">Rasmus Malling-Hansen</a> of <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a>, which went into commercial production in 1870 and was the first commercially sold typewriter. It was a success in Europe and was reported as being used in offices on the European continent as late as 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-Mares_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mares-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>Malling-Hansen used a <a href="/wiki/Solenoid" title="Solenoid">solenoid</a> escapement to return the carriage on some of his models, which makes him a candidate for the title of inventor of the first "electric" typewriter.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Hansen Writing Ball was produced with only upper-case characters. The Writing Ball was a template for inventor <a href="/wiki/Frank_Haven_Hall" title="Frank Haven Hall">Frank Haven Hall</a> to create a derivative that would produce letter prints cheaper and faster.<sup id="cite_ref-Devil_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devil-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3lives_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3lives-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Museum_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Museum-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter further through the 1870s and 1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the same. On the first model of the writing ball from 1870, the paper was attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was replaced by a carriage, moving beneath the writing head. Then, in 1875, the well-known "tall model" was patented, which was the first of the writing balls that worked without electricity. Malling-Hansen attended the world exhibitions in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> in 1873 and Paris in 1878 and he received the first-prize for his invention at both exhibitions.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sholes_typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sholes_typewriter.jpg/170px-Sholes_typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sholes_typewriter.jpg/255px-Sholes_typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sholes_typewriter.jpg/340px-Sholes_typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="842" /></a><figcaption>Prototype of the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, the first commercially successful typewriter, and the first with a QWERTY keyboard (1873)</figcaption></figure>
<p>The first typewriter to be commercially successful was patented in 1868 by Americans <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Latham_Sholes" title="Christopher Latham Sholes">Christopher Latham Sholes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Haven_Hall" title="Frank Haven Hall">Frank Haven Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Glidden" title="Carlos Glidden">Carlos Glidden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._Soule" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel W. Soule">Samuel W. Soule</a> in <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee,_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Milwaukee, Wisconsin">Milwaukee, Wisconsin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> although Sholes soon disowned the machine and refused to use or even recommend it.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> The working prototype was made by clock-maker and machinist Matthias Schwalbach.<sup id="cite_ref-WCH_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WCH-32">[32]</a></sup> Hall, Glidden and Soule sold their shares in the patent (US 79,265) to Densmore and Sholes,<sup id="cite_ref-Current_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Current-33">[33]</a></sup> who made an agreement with <a href="/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons" title="E. Remington and Sons">E. Remington and Sons</a> (then famous as a manufacturer of <a href="/wiki/Sewing_machine" title="Sewing machine">sewing machines</a>) to commercialize the machine as the <i><a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-WCH_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WCH-32">[32]</a></sup> This was the origin of the term <i>typewriter</i>.
</p><p>Remington began production of its first typewriter on March 1, 1873, in <a href="/wiki/Ilion,_New_York" title="Ilion, New York">Ilion, New York</a>. It had a <a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a> keyboard layout, which, because of the machine's success, was slowly adopted by other typewriter manufacturers. As with most other early typewriters, because the <b>typebars</b> strike upwards, the typist could not see the characters as they were typed.<sup id="cite_ref-Current_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Current-33">[33]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Index_typewriter">Index typewriter</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hall_1_typewriter,_1881_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1031" /></a><figcaption>Hall 1 typewriter, 1881 - The first index typewriter</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Columbia_2_typewriter,_1886_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1279" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Columbia 2 typewriter, 1886 - Early index typewriter with proportional spacing</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victor_typewriter,_1889_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption>Victor typewriter, 1889 - The first successful typewriter to use a daisy wheel</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mignon_Mod.4,Bj.1924.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg/220px-Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg/330px-Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg/440px-Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="2303" /></a><figcaption>A Mignon Model 4 index typewriter from 1924</figcaption></figure>
<p>The index typewriter came into the market in the early 1880s.<sup id="cite_ref-EOM_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EOM-34">[34]</a></sup> The index typewriter uses a pointer or stylus to choose a letter from an index. The pointer is mechanically linked so that the letter chosen could then be printed, most often by the activation of a lever.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard type machines, they were mechanically simpler and lighter. They were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers and, because they could be produced more cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to produce small quantities of typed correspondence.<sup id="cite_ref-EOM_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EOM-34">[34]</a></sup>
For example, the Simplex Typewriter Company made index typewriters for 1/40 the price of a Remington typewriter.<sup id="cite_ref-PoltWeb_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoltWeb-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>The index typewriter's niche appeal however soon disappeared, as on the one hand new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more portable and on the other refurbished second-hand machines began to become available.<sup id="cite_ref-EOM_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EOM-34">[34]</a></sup> The last widely available western index machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by <a href="/wiki/AEG_(German_company)" title="AEG (German company)">AEG</a> which was produced until 1934. Considered one of the very best of the index typewriters, part of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured both interchangeable indexes and <a href="/wiki/Sort_(typesetting)" title="Sort (typesetting)">type</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Mignon2_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mignon2-36">[36]</a></sup> allowing the use of different <a href="/wiki/Font" title="Font">fonts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Character_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Character set">character sets</a>, something very few keyboard machines allowed and only at considerable added cost.<sup id="cite_ref-Mignon2_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mignon2-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although pushed out of the market in most of the world by keyboard machines, successful <a href="/wiki/Japanese_typewriter" title="Japanese typewriter">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriters</a> are of the index type albeit with a very much larger index and number of type elements.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Embossing_tape" title="Embossing tape">Embossing tape</a> label makers are the most common index typewriters today, and perhaps the most common typewriters of any kind still being manufactured.<sup id="cite_ref-PoltWeb_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoltWeb-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine-38">[38]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_typewriters">Other typewriters</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hammond_1_typewriter_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1621" /></a><figcaption>Hammond 1 typewriter, 1885</figcaption></figure>1884 – Hammond "Ideal" typewriter with case, by Hammond Typewriter Company Limited, United States. Despite an unusual, curved keyboard (see picture in citation), the Hammond became popular because of its superior print quality and changeable typeface. Invented by James Hammond of Boston, Massachusetts in 1880, and commercially released in 1884. The type is carried on a pair of interchangeable rotating sectors, one controlled by each half of the keyboard. A small hammer pushes the paper against the ribbon and type sector to print each character. The mechanism was later adapted to give a straight QWERTY keyboard and proportional spacing.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup></li>
<li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fitch_1_typewriter,_1888_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1596" /></a><figcaption>Fitch 1 typewriter, 1888</figcaption></figure>1888 – Fitch typewriter – Made by the Fitch Typewriter Company, Brooklyn, N.Y. and later in the UK with a slightly different look. Operators of the early typewriters had to work "blind": the typed text emerged only after several lines had been completed or the carriage was lifted to look underneath at the page. The Fitch was one of the first machines to allow prompt correction of mistakes with its visible writing; it was said to be the second machine operating on the visible writing system. The typebars were positioned behind the paper and the writing area faced upwards so that the result could be seen instantly. A curved frame kept the emerging paper from obscuring the keyboard, but the Fitch was soon eclipsed by machines in which the paper could be fed more conveniently at the rear.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-40">[40]</a></sup></li>
<li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Underwood_1_typewriter,_1896.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg/220px-Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg/330px-Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg/440px-Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2706" data-file-height="2403" /></a><figcaption>Underwood 1 typewriter, 1896 - The typewriter that would set the design standard for the new century, with three rows of keys, front strike visible and a single shift key. It also had a wonderfuly light and fast typing action.</figcaption></figure>1893 – Gardner typewriter. This typewriter, patented by Mr J Gardner in 1893, was an attempt to reduce the size and cost. Although it prints 84 symbols, it has only 14 keys and two change-case keys. Several characters are indicated on each key and the character printed is determined by the position of the case keys, which choose one of six cases.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup></li>
<li>1896 – The "Underwood 1 typewriter, 10" Pica, No. 990". This was the first typewriter with a typing area fully visible to the typist until a key is struck. These features, copied by all subsequent typewriters, allowed the typist to see and if necessary correct the typing as it proceeded. The mechanism was developed in the US by Franz X. Wagner from about 1892 and taken up, in 1895, by John T. Underwood (1857–1937), a producer of office supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup></li></ul>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory,_dated_1886.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif/lossy-page1-220px-A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif/lossy-page1-330px-A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif/lossy-page1-440px-A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4750" data-file-height="7346" /></a><figcaption>A very early typewritten letter as part of a court case in the Utah Territory, from Appeal #6544, dated 1886.</figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Standardization">Standardization</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>By about 1910, the "manual" or "mechanical" typewriter had reached a somewhat <a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">standardized</a> design.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> There were minor variations from one manufacturer to another, but most typewriters followed the concept that each key was attached to a typebar that had the corresponding letter molded, in reverse, into its striking head. When a key was struck briskly and firmly, the typebar hit a ribbon (usually made of <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inked</a> <a href="/wiki/Cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloth">fabric</a>), making a printed mark on the paper wrapped around a cylindrical <a href="/wiki/Platen" title="Platen">platen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine-38">[38]</a></sup> Typewriters for languages written <a href="/wiki/Right-to-left" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-to-left">right-to-left</a> operate in the opposite direction.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Frontstriking">Frontstriking</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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In most of the early typewriters, the typebars struck upward against the paper, pressed against the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Platen" title="Platen">platen</a>, so the typist could not see the text as it was typed.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> What was typed was not visible until a carriage return caused it to scroll into view.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daugherty_typewriter_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1370" /></a><figcaption>Daugherty typewriter, 1893</figcaption></figure><p>The difficulty with any other arrangement was ensuring the typebars fell back into place reliably when the key was released. This was eventually achieved with various ingenious mechanical designs and so-called "visible typewriters" which used frontstriking, in which the typebars struck forward against the front side of the platen, became standard.
</p><p>One of the first was the Daugherty Visible, introduced in 1893, which also introduced the four-bank keyboard that became standard, although the Underwood which came out two years later was the first major typewriter with these features.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert1_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert1-48">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Seaver1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaver1-49">[49]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Shift_key">Shift key</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Remington_2_typewriter_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1473" /></a><figcaption>Remington 2 typewriter, 1878</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard,_Single-Shift,_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png/220px-Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png/330px-Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png/440px-Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png 2x" data-file-width="2322" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of full-keyboard, single-shift, and double-shift typewriters in 1911</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg/220px-Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg/330px-Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg/440px-Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Corona #3 typewriter owned by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a>, with a "FIG" shift key as well as a "CAP" shift key</figcaption></figure>
<p>A significant innovation was the <a href="/wiki/Shift_key" title="Shift key">shift key</a>, introduced with the <a href="/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons" title="E. Remington and Sons">Remington</a> No. 2 in 1878. This key physically "shifted" either the basket of typebars, in which case the typewriter is described as "basket shift", or the paper-holding carriage, in which case the typewriter is described as "carriage shift".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Either mechanism caused a different portion of the typebar to come in contact with the ribbon/platen.
</p><p>The result is that each typebar could type two different characters, cutting the number of keys and typebars in half (and simplifying the internal mechanisms considerably). The obvious use for this was to allow letter keys to type both <a href="/wiki/Letter_case" title="Letter case">upper and lower case</a>, but normally the number keys were also duplexed, allowing access to special symbols such as percent, <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">%</span>, and ampersand, <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">&</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup>
</p><p>Before the shift key, typewriters had to have a separate key and typebar for upper-case letters; in essence, the typewriter had two keyboards, one above the other. With the shift key, manufacturing costs (and therefore purchase price) were greatly reduced, and typist operation was simplified; both factors contributed greatly to mass adoption of the technology.
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Three-bank_typewriters">Three-bank typewriters</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Certain models further reduced the number of keys and typebars by making each key perform three functions – each typebar could type three different characters. These little three-row machines were portable and could be used by journalists.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>Such three-row machines were popular with WWI journalists because they were lighter and more compact than four-bank typewriters, while they could type just as fast and use just as many symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>Such three-row machines, such as the Bar-Let<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
and the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Corona#Corona_Typewriter_Company" title="Smith Corona">Corona</a> No. 3 Typewriter<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
have two separate shift keys, a "CAP" shift (for uppercase) and a "FIG" shift (for numbers and symbols).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Murray_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Murray code">Murray code</a> was developed for a <a href="/wiki/Teletypewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletypewriter">teletypewriter</a> with a similar three-row typewriter keyboard.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Tab_key">Tab key</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>To facilitate typewriter use in business settings, a tab (tabulator) key was added in the late nineteenth century. Before using the key, the operator had to set mechanical "tab stops", pre-designated locations to which the carriage would advance when the tab key was pressed. This facilitated the typing of columns of numbers, freeing the operator from the need to manually position the carriage. The first models had one tab stop and one tab key; later ones allowed as many stops as desired, and sometimes had multiple tab keys, each of which moved the carriage a different number of spaces ahead of the decimal point (the tab stop), to facilitate the typing of columns with numbers of different length ($1.00, $10.00, $100.00, etc.)
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Dead_keys">Dead keys</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">Dead key</a></div>
<p>Languages such as French, Spanish, and German required <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>, special signs attached to or on top of the base letter: for example, a combination of the <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">´</span> plus <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">e</span> produced <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">é</span>; <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">~</span> plus <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">n</span> produced <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">ñ</span>. In <a href="/wiki/Typesetting#Movable_type" title="Typesetting">metal typesetting</a>, <span class="nowrap">⟨é⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ñ⟩</span>, and others were separate <a href="/wiki/Sort_(typesetting)" title="Sort (typesetting)">sorts</a>. With mechanical typewriters, the number of whose characters (sorts) was constrained by the physical limits of the machine, the number of keys required was reduced by the use of <a href="/wiki/Dead_keys" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead keys">dead keys</a>. Diacritics such as <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">´</span> (<a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>) would be assigned to a <a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">dead key</a>, which did not move the <a href="/wiki/Platen" title="Platen">platen</a> forward, permitting another character to be imprinted at the same location; thus a single dead key such as the acute accent could be combined with <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">a</span>,<span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">e</span>,<span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">i</span>,<span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">o</span> and <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">u</span> to produce <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">á</span>,<span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">é</span>,<span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">í</span>,<span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">ó</span> and <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">ú</span>, reducing the number of sorts needed from 5 to 1. The typebars of "normal" characters struck a rod as they moved the metal character desired toward the ribbon and platen, and each rod depression moved the platen forward the width of one character. Dead keys had a typebar shaped so as not to strike the rod.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Character_sizes">Character sizes</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Point_(typography)" title="Point (typography)">Point (typography)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(typewriter)" title="Pitch (typewriter)">Pitch (typewriter)</a></div>
<p>In English-speaking countries, ordinary typewriters printing fixed-width characters were standardized to print six horizontal lines per vertical inch, and had either of two variants of character width, one called <i>pica</i> for ten characters per horizontal inch and the other <i>elite</i>, for twelve. This differed from the use of these terms in printing, where <a href="/wiki/Pica_(typography)" title="Pica (typography)">pica</a> is a linear unit (approximately <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span> of an inch) used for any measurement, the most common one being the height of a type face.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Color">Color</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Some ribbons were inked in black and red stripes, each being half the width and running the entire length of the ribbon. A lever on most machines allowed switching between colors, which was useful for bookkeeping entries where negative amounts were highlighted in red. The red color was also used on some selected characters in running text, for emphasis. When a typewriter had this facility, it could still be fitted with a solid black ribbon; the lever was then used to switch to fresh ribbon when the first stripe ran out of ink. Some typewriters also had a third position which stopped the ribbon being struck at all. This enabled the keys to hit the paper unobstructed, and was used for cutting stencils for <a href="/wiki/Mimeograph" title="Mimeograph">stencil duplicators</a> (aka mimeograph machines).<sup id="cite_ref-MimeoTypewriter_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MimeoTypewriter-61">[61]</a></sup>
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<h4><span id=".22Noiseless.22_designs"></span><span class="mw-headline" id=""Noiseless"_designs">"Noiseless" designs</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rapid_typewriter,_1890_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1524" /></a><figcaption>Rapid typewriter, 1890</figcaption></figure>
<p>The first typewriter to have the sliding type bars (laid out horizontally like a fan) that enable a typewriter to be 'noiseless' was the American made Rapid which appeared briefly on the market in 1890. The Rapid also had the remarkable ability for the typist to have entire control of the carriage by manipulation of the keyboard alone. The two keys that achieve this are positioned at the top of the keyboard (seen in the detail image below). They are a ‘Lift’ key that advances the paper, on the platen, to the next line and a ‘Return’ key that causes the carriage to automatically swing back to the right, ready for one to type the new line. So an entire page could be typed without one’s hands leaving the keyboard.
</p><p>In the early part of the 20th century, a typewriter was marketed under the name Noiseless and advertised as "silent". It was developed by Wellington Parker Kidder and the first model was marketed by the Noiseless Typewriter Company in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> Noiseless portables sold well in the 1930s and 1940s, and noiseless standards continued to be manufactured until the 1960s. <sup id="cite_ref-ja_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ja-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a conventional typewriter the type bar reaches the end of its travel simply by striking the ribbon and paper. The Noiseless, developed by Kidder, has a complex lever mechanism that decelerates the type bar mechanically before pressing it against the ribbon and paper in an attempt to dampen the noise.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Electric_designs">Electric designs</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Although electric typewriters would not achieve widespread popularity until nearly a century later, the basic groundwork for the electric typewriter was laid by the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Stock_Ticker" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Stock Ticker">Universal Stock Ticker</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> in 1870. This device remotely printed letters and numbers on a stream of paper tape from input generated by a specially designed typewriter at the other end of a telegraph line.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_electric_models">Early electric models</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Some electric typewriters were patented in the 19th century, but the first machine known to be produced in series is the Cahill of 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another electric typewriter was produced by the <a href="/wiki/Blickensderfer_typewriter" title="Blickensderfer typewriter">Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Stamford,_Connecticut" title="Stamford, Connecticut">Stamford, Connecticut</a>, in 1902. Like the manual Blickensderfer typewriters, it used a cylindrical typewheel rather than individual typebars. The machine was produced in several variants but apparently not a commercial success,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> having come to market ahead of its time, before ubiquitous <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a>.
</p><p>The next step in the development of the electric typewriter came in 1910, when Charles and Howard Krum filed a patent for the first practical <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teletypewriter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> The Krums' machine, named the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, used a typewheel rather than individual typebars. This machine was used for the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and New York City in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Fields_Smathers" title="James Fields Smathers">James Fields Smathers</a> of Kansas City invented what is considered the first practical power-operated typewriter in 1914. In 1920, after returning from Army service, he produced a successful model and in 1923 turned it over to the Northeast Electric Company of Rochester for development. Northeast was interested in finding new markets for their electric motors and developed Smathers's design so that it could be marketed to typewriter manufacturers, and from 1925 Remington Electric typewriters were produced powered by Northeast's motors.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p><p>After some 2,500 electric typewriters had been produced, Northeast asked Remington for a firm contract for the next batch. However, Remington was engaged in merger talks, which would eventually result in the creation of <a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand" title="Remington Rand">Remington Rand</a> and no executives were willing to commit to a firm order. Northeast instead decided to enter the typewriter business for itself, and in 1929 produced the first Electromatic Typewriter.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1928, <a href="/wiki/Delco_Electronics" title="Delco Electronics">Delco</a>, a division of <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>, purchased Northeast Electric, and the typewriter business was spun off as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, which then spent <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$</a>1 million on a redesign of the Electromatic Typewriter, launching the IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1931, an electric typewriter was introduced by Varityper Corporation. It was called the <a href="/wiki/Varityper" class="mw-redirect" title="Varityper">Varityper</a>, because a narrow cylinder-like wheel could be replaced to change the <a href="/wiki/Font" title="Font">font</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1941, IBM announced the Electromatic Model 04 electric typewriter, featuring the revolutionary concept of proportional spacing. By assigning varied rather than uniform spacing to different sized characters, the Type 4 recreated the appearance of a typeset page, an effect that was further enhanced by including the 1937 innovation of carbon-film ribbons that produced clearer, sharper words on the page.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="IBM_Selectric">IBM Selectric</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Selectric typewriter">IBM Selectric typewriter</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IBM_Selectric_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IBM_Selectric_II.jpg/220px-IBM_Selectric_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IBM_Selectric_II.jpg/330px-IBM_Selectric_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IBM_Selectric_II.jpg/440px-IBM_Selectric_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>IBM Selectric II (dual Latin/Hebrew typeball and keyboard)</figcaption></figure>
<p>IBM introduced the <a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Selectric typewriter">IBM Selectric typewriter</a> in 1961, which replaced the typebars with a spherical element (or <b>typeball</b>) slightly smaller than a <a href="/wiki/Golf_ball" title="Golf ball">golf ball</a>, with reverse-image letters molded into its surface. The Selectric used a system of latches, metal tapes, and pulleys driven by an electric motor to rotate the ball into the correct position and then strike it against the ribbon and platen. The typeball moved laterally in front of the paper, instead of the previous designs using a platen-carrying carriage moving the paper across a stationary print position.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>Due to the physical similarity, the typeball was sometimes referred to as a "golfball".<sup id="cite_ref-ibm100_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibm100-75">[75]</a></sup> The typeball design had many advantages, especially the elimination of "jams" (when more than one key was struck at once and the typebars became entangled) and in the ability to change the typeball, allowing multiple fonts to be used in a single document.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup>
</p><p>The IBM Selectric became a commercial success, dominating the office typewriter market for at least two decades.<sup id="cite_ref-ibm100_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibm100-75">[75]</a></sup> IBM also gained an advantage by marketing more heavily to schools than did Remington, with the idea that students who learned to type on a Selectric would later choose IBM typewriters over the competition in the workplace as businesses replaced their old manual models.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>Later models of IBM Executives and Selectrics replaced inked fabric ribbons with "carbon film" ribbons that had a dry black or colored powder on a clear plastic tape. These could be used only once, but later models used a cartridge that was simple to replace. A side effect of this technology was that the text typed on the machine could be easily read from the used ribbon, raising issues where the machines were used for preparing classified documents (ribbons had to be accounted for to ensure that typists did not carry them from the facility).<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p><span class="anchor" id="Correcting_typewriters"></span>
A variation known as "Correcting Selectrics" introduced a correction feature, later imitated by competing machines, where a sticky tape in front of the carbon film ribbon could remove the black-powdered image of a typed character, eliminating the need for little bottles of white dab-on correction fluid and for hard erasers that could tear the paper. These machines also introduced selectable "pitch" so that the typewriter could be switched between <a href="/wiki/Pica_(typography)" title="Pica (typography)">pica</a> type (10 characters per inch) and elite type (12 per inch), even within one document. Even so, all Selectrics were <a href="/wiki/Proportional_fonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Proportional fonts">monospaced</a> – each character and letterspace was allotted the same width on the page, from a capital "W" to a period. IBM did produce a successful typebar-based machine with five levels of proportional spacing, called the <a href="/wiki/IBM_Executive_series_typewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Executive series typewriter">IBM Executive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup>
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The only fully electromechanical Selectric Typewriter with fully proportional spacing and which used a Selectric type element was the expensive <a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric_Composer" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Selectric Composer">Selectric Composer</a>, which was capable of right-margin justification (typing each line twice was required, once to calculate and again to print) and was considered a <a href="/wiki/Typesetter" class="mw-redirect" title="Typesetter">typesetting machine</a> rather than a typewriter. Composer typeballs physically resembled those of the Selectric typewriter but were not interchangeable.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-80">[80]</a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png/220px-Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png/330px-Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png/440px-Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="125" /></a><figcaption>Composer output showing <a href="/wiki/Roman_type" title="Roman type">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emphasis_(typography)" title="Emphasis (typography)">Bold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italic_font" class="mw-redirect" title="Italic font">Italic fonts</a> available by changing the type ball</figcaption></figure><p>In addition to its electronic successors, the <a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter#Selectric-based_machines_with_data_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Selectric typewriter">Magnetic Tape Selectric Composer</a> (MT/SC), the Mag Card Selectric Composer, and the Electronic Selectric Composer, IBM also made electronic typewriters with proportional spacing using the Selectric element that were considered typewriters or <a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">word processors</a> instead of typesetting machines.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first of these was the relatively obscure Mag Card Executive, which used 88-character elements. Later, some of the same typestyles used for it were used on the 96-character elements used on the IBM Electronic Typewriter 50 and the later models 65 and 85.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 1970, as <a href="/wiki/Offset_printing" title="Offset printing">offset printing</a> began to replace <a href="/wiki/Letterpress_printing" title="Letterpress printing">letterpress printing</a>, the Composer would be adapted as the output unit for a typesetting system. The system included a computer-driven input station to capture the key strokes on magnetic tape and insert the operator's format commands, and a Composer unit to read the tape and produce the formatted text for photo reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/IBM_2741" title="IBM 2741">IBM 2741</a> terminal was a popular example of a Selectric-based computer terminal, and similar mechanisms were employed as the console devices for many <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">IBM System/360</a> computers. These mechanisms used "ruggedized" designs compared to those in standard office typewriters.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Later_electric_models">Later electric models</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217611005">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style>
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<div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div>
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<div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg" title="File:Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 typing.ogg">Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 being tapped</a></div>
<div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="41" data-mwtitle="Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d7/Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg/Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div>
<div class="description">A recording of the sound of typing on a Smith-Corona electric typewriter.</div></div></div></div>
<div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div>
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<p>Some of IBM's advances were later adopted in less expensive machines from competitors. For example, <a href="/wiki/Smith_Corona" title="Smith Corona">Smith-Corona</a> electric typewriters introduced in 1973 switched to interchangeable Coronamatic (SCM-patented) ribbon cartridges.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> including fabric, film, erasing, and two-color versions. At about the same time, the advent of <a href="/wiki/Photocopying" class="mw-redirect" title="Photocopying">photocopying</a> meant that <a href="/wiki/Carbon_copy" title="Carbon copy">carbon copies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">correction fluid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eraser" title="Eraser">erasers</a> were less and less necessary; only the original need be typed, and photocopies made from it.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="WP:BLOGS (March 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Electronic_typewriters">Electronic typewriters</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The final major development of the typewriter was the electronic typewriter. Most of these replaced the typeball with a plastic or metal <a href="/wiki/Daisy_wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Daisy wheel">daisy wheel</a> mechanism (a disk with the letters molded on the outside edge of the "petals"). The daisy wheel concept first emerged in printers developed by <a href="/wiki/Diablo_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Diablo Systems">Diablo Systems</a> in the 1970s. The first electronic daisywheel typewriter marketed in the world (in 1976) is the Olivetti Tes 501, and subsequently in 1978, the Olivetti ET101 (with function display) and Olivetti TES 401 (with text display and floppy disk for memory storage). This has allowed Olivetti to maintain the world record in the design of electronic typewriters, proposing increasingly advanced and performing models in the following years.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>Unlike the Selectrics and earlier models, these really were "electronic" and relied on integrated circuits and electromechanical components. These typewriters were sometimes called <i>display typewriters</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> <i>dedicated word processors</i> or <i>word-processing typewriters</i>, though the latter term was also frequently applied to less sophisticated machines that featured only a tiny, sometimes just single-row display. Sophisticated models were also called <i>word processors</i>, though today that term almost always denotes a type of software program. Manufacturers of such machines included Olivetti (TES501, first totally electronic Olivetti word processor with daisywheel and floppy disk in 1976; TES621 in 1979 etc.), <a href="/wiki/Brother_Industries" title="Brother Industries">Brother</a> (Brother WP1 and WP500 etc., where WP stood for word processor), <a href="/wiki/Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Canon_Cat" title="Canon Cat">Canon Cat</a>), <a href="/wiki/Smith-Corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Smith-Corona">Smith-Corona</a> (PWP, i.e. Personal Word Processor line)<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a>/<a href="/wiki/Magnavox" title="Magnavox">Magnavox</a> (<a href="/wiki/VideoWriter" title="VideoWriter">VideoWriter</a>).
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Type.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 Canon Typestar 110"><img alt="Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 Canon Typestar 110" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Type.jpg/120px-Type.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Type.jpg/180px-Type.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Type.jpg/240px-Type.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1132" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 <a href="/wiki/Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a> Typestar 110</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a floppy disk reader"><img alt="The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a floppy disk reader" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg/120px-Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg/180px-Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg/240px-Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> reader</div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Decline">Decline</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The pace of change was so rapid that it was common for clerical staff to have to learn several new systems, one after the other, in just a few years.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup> While such rapid change is commonplace today, and is taken for granted, this was not always so; in fact, typewriting technology changed very little in its first 80 or 90 years.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup>
</p><p>Due to falling sales, IBM sold its typewriter division in 1991 to the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Lexmark" title="Lexmark">Lexmark</a>, completely exiting from a market it once dominated.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
</p><p>The increasing dominance of personal computers, <a href="/wiki/Desktop_publishing" title="Desktop publishing">desktop publishing</a>, the introduction of low-cost, truly high-quality <a href="/wiki/Laser_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser printer">laser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inkjet_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Inkjet printer">inkjet printer</a> technologies, and the pervasive use of <a href="/wiki/Web_publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Web publishing">web publishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_messaging" title="Text messaging">text messaging</a>, and other electronic communication techniques have largely replaced typewriters in the United States. Still, as of 2009<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, typewriters continued to be used by a number of government agencies and other institutions in the US, where they are primarily used to fill preprinted forms. According to a Boston typewriter repairman quoted by <i><a href="/wiki/The_Boston_Globe" title="The Boston Globe">The Boston Globe</a></i>, "Every maternity ward has a typewriter, as well as funeral homes".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>A rather specialized market for typewriters exists due to the regulations of many correctional systems in the US, where prisoners are prohibited from having computers or telecommunication equipment, but are allowed to own typewriters. The Swintec corporation (headquartered in <a href="/wiki/Moonachie,_New_Jersey" title="Moonachie, New Jersey">Moonachie, New Jersey</a>), which, as of 2011, still produced typewriters at its overseas factories (in Japan, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and/or <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>), manufactures a variety of typewriters for use in prisons, made of clear plastic (to make it harder for prisoners to hide prohibited items inside it). As of 2011, the company had contracts with prisons in 43 US states.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>In April 2011, Godrej and Boyce, a <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>-based manufacturer of mechanical typewriters, closed its doors, leading to a flurry of news reports that the "world's last typewriter factory" had shut down.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> The reports were quickly contested, with opinions settling to agree that it was indeed the world's last producer of manual typewriters.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rohrlich_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rohrlich-100">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>In November 2012, Brother's UK factory manufactured what it claimed to be the last typewriter ever made in the UK; the typewriter was donated to the <a href="/wiki/London_Science_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="London Science Museum">London Science Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>Russian typewriters use <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a>, which has made the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_alphabet" title="Azerbaijani alphabet">reconversion</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> more difficult. In 1997, the government of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> offered to donate western typewriters to the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Azerbaijan">Republic of Azerbaijan</a> in exchange for more zealous and exclusive promotion of the Latin alphabet for the Azerbaijani language; this offer, however, was declined.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Latin America and Africa, mechanical typewriters are still common because they can be used without electrical power. In Latin America, the typewriters used are most often Brazilian models; Brazil continues to produce mechanical (Facit) and electronic (Olivetti) typewriters to the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>The early 21st century saw revival of interest in typewriters among certain subcultures, including <a href="/wiki/Maker_culture" title="Maker culture">makers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steampunk" title="Steampunk">steampunks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hipster_(contemporary_subculture)" title="Hipster (contemporary subculture)">hipsters</a>, and street poets.<sup id="cite_ref-PoltBook_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoltBook-104">[104]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Correction_technologies">Correction technologies</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>According to the standards taught in secretarial schools in the mid-20th century, a <a href="/wiki/Business_letter" title="Business letter">business letter</a> was supposed to have no mistakes and no visible corrections.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg/220px-Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg/330px-Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg/440px-Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="1446" /></a><figcaption>Triumph typewriter eraser (1960)</figcaption></figure>
<p>The traditional erasing method involved the use of a special <i>typewriter <a href="/wiki/Eraser" title="Eraser">eraser</a></i> made of <a href="/wiki/Hard_rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard rubber">hard rubber</a> that contained an <a href="/wiki/Abrasive" title="Abrasive">abrasive</a> material. Some were thin, flat disks, pink or gray, approximately 2 inches (51 mm) in diameter by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> inch (3.2 mm) thick, with a brush attached from the center, while others looked like pink pencils, with a sharpenable eraser at the "lead" end and a stiff nylon brush at the other end. Either way, these tools made possible erasure of individual typed letters. Business letters were typed on heavyweight, high-rag-content bond paper, not merely to provide a luxurious appearance, but also to stand up to erasure.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup>
</p><p>Typewriter eraser brushes were necessary for clearing eraser crumbs and paper dust, and using the brush properly was an important element of typewriting skill; if erasure detritus fell into the typewriter, a small buildup could cause the typebars to jam in their narrow supporting grooves.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg/220px-Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg/330px-Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg/440px-Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1634" /></a><figcaption>Erasing Shield (1992)</figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Erasing_shield">Erasing shield</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Erasing a set of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_copies" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon copies">carbon copies</a> was particularly difficult, and called for the use of a device called an <i><a href="/wiki/Erasing_shield" title="Erasing shield">erasing shield</a></i> or <i>eraser shield</i> (a thin stainless-steel rectangle about 2 by 3 inches (51 by 76 mm) with several tiny holes in it) to prevent the pressure of erasing on the upper copies from producing carbon smudges on the lower copies. To correct copies, typists had to go from one carbon copy layer to the next carbon copy layer, trying not to get their fingers dirty as they leafed through the carbon papers, and moving and repositioning the eraser shield and eraser for each copy.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Erasable_bond">Erasable bond</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Paper companies produced a special form of typewriter paper called <i>erasable bond</i> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Eaton%27s_Corrasable_Bond" title="Eaton's Corrasable Bond">Eaton's Corrasable Bond</a>). This incorporated a thin layer of material that prevented ink from penetrating and was relatively soft and easy to remove from the page. An ordinary soft pencil eraser could quickly produce perfect erasures on this kind of paper. However, the same characteristics that made the paper erasable made the characters subject to smudging due to ordinary friction and deliberate alteration after the fact, making it unacceptable for business correspondence, contracts, or any archival use.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Correction_fluid">Correction fluid</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">Correction fluid</a></div>
<p>In the 1950s and 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">correction fluid</a> made its appearance, under brand names such as <a href="/wiki/Liquid_Paper" title="Liquid Paper">Liquid Paper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wite-Out" title="Wite-Out">Wite-Out</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tipp-Ex" title="Tipp-Ex">Tipp-Ex</a>; it was invented by <a href="/wiki/Bette_Nesmith_Graham" title="Bette Nesmith Graham">Bette Nesmith Graham</a>. Correction fluid was a kind of opaque, white, fast-drying paint that produced a fresh white surface onto which, when dry, a correction could be retyped. However, when held to the light, the covered-up characters were visible, as was the patch of dry correction fluid (which was never perfectly flat, and frequently not a perfect match for the color, texture, and luster of the surrounding paper). The standard trick for solving this problem was <a href="/wiki/Photocopying" class="mw-redirect" title="Photocopying">photocopying</a> the corrected page, but this was possible only with high quality photocopiers.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup>
</p><p>A different fluid was available for correcting stencils. It sealed up the stencil ready for retyping but did not attempt to color match.<sup id="cite_ref-MimeoCorrect_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MimeoCorrect-110">[110]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Legacy">Legacy</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Keyboard_layouts">Keyboard layouts</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg/220px-UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="283" /></a><figcaption>The "<a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a>" layout of typewriter keys became a <i>de facto</i> standard and continues to be used long after the reasons for its adoption (including reduction of key/lever entanglements) have ceased to apply.</figcaption></figure>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="QWERTY">QWERTY</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a></div>
<p>The 1874 Sholes & Glidden typewriters established the "QWERTY" layout for the letter keys. During the period in which Sholes and his colleagues were experimenting with this invention, other keyboard arrangements were apparently tried, but these are poorly documented.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> The QWERTY layout of keys has become the de facto standard for English-language typewriter and computer keyboards. Other languages written in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> sometimes use variants of the QWERTY layouts, such as the French <a href="/wiki/AZERTY" title="AZERTY">AZERTY</a>, the Italian <a href="/wiki/QZERTY" class="mw-redirect" title="QZERTY">QZERTY</a> and the German <a href="/wiki/QWERTZ" title="QWERTZ">QWERTZ</a> layouts.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>The QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout possible for the English language. <a href="/wiki/Touch_typing" title="Touch typing">Touch-typists</a> are required to move their fingers between rows to type the most common letters. Although the QWERTY keyboard was the most commonly used layout in typewriters, a better, less strenuous keyboard was being searched for throughout the late 1900s.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup>
</p><p>One popular but incorrect<sup id="cite_ref-Smithsonian_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-114">[114]</a></sup> explanation for the QWERTY arrangement is that it was designed to reduce the likelihood of internal clashing of typebars by placing commonly used combinations of letters farther from each other inside the machine.<sup id="cite_ref-David,_P.A._1986_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David,_P.A._1986-115">[115]</a></sup>
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<p>A number of radically different layouts such as <a href="/wiki/Dvorak_Simplified_Keyboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvorak Simplified Keyboard">Dvorak</a> have been proposed to reduce the perceived inefficiencies of QWERTY, but none have been able to displace the QWERTY layout; their proponents claim considerable advantages, but so far none has been widely used. The <a href="/wiki/Blickensderfer_typewriter" title="Blickensderfer typewriter">Blickensderfer typewriter</a> with its <a href="/wiki/DHIATENSOR" class="mw-redirect" title="DHIATENSOR">DHIATENSOR</a> layout may have possibly been the first attempt at optimizing the keyboard layout for efficiency advantages.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p>On modern keyboards, the exclamation point is the shifted character on the 1 key, because these were the last characters to become "standard" on keyboards. Holding the spacebar down usually suspended the carriage advance mechanism (a so-called "<a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">dead key</a>" feature), allowing one to superimpose multiple keystrikes on a single location. The ¢ symbol (meaning cents) was located above the number 6 on American electric typewriters, whereas <a href="/wiki/ANSI" class="mw-redirect" title="ANSI">ANSI</a>-<a href="/wiki/INCITS" class="mw-redirect" title="INCITS">INCITS</a>-standard <a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">computer keyboards</a> have ^ instead.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Keyboards_for_other_languages">Keyboards for other languages</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lettera_22_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lettera_22_2.JPG/220px-Lettera_22_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lettera_22_2.JPG/330px-Lettera_22_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lettera_22_2.JPG/440px-Lettera_22_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1542" data-file-height="1514" /></a><figcaption>Italian typewriter <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Lettera_22" title="Olivetti Lettera 22">Olivetti Lettera 22</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The keyboards for other Latin languages are broadly similar to QWERTY but are optimised for the relevant orthography. In addition to some changes in the order of letters, perhaps the most obvious is the presence of <a href="/wiki/Precomposed_character" title="Precomposed character">precomposed characters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>.
</p><p>Many non-Latin alphabets have keyboard layouts that have nothing to do with QWERTY. The Russian layout, for instance, puts the common trigrams ыва, про, and ить on adjacent keys so that they can be typed by rolling the fingers.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>Typewriters were also made for <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_languages" title="East Asian languages">East Asian languages</a> with thousands of characters, such as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese</a> or <a href="/wiki/Japanese_typewriter" title="Japanese typewriter">Japanese</a>. They were not easy to operate, but professional typists used them for a long time until the development of electronic word processors and <a href="/wiki/Laser_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser printer">laser printers</a> in the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Typewriter_conventions">Typewriter conventions</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif/220px-Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif/330px-Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif/440px-Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>This typed page uses a number of typographic conventions stemming from the mechanical limitations of the typewriter: two hyphens in place of an <a href="/wiki/Em_dash" class="mw-redirect" title="Em dash">em dash</a>, double <a href="/wiki/Sentence_spacing" title="Sentence spacing">sentence spacing</a>, straight <a href="/wiki/Quotation_mark" title="Quotation mark">quotation marks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tab_key" title="Tab key">tab</a> indents for paragraphs, and double <a href="/wiki/Carriage_return" title="Carriage return">carriage returns</a> between paragraphs</figcaption></figure>
<p>A number of typographical conventions stem from the typewriter's characteristics and limitations. For example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did not include keys for the <a href="/wiki/En_dash" class="mw-redirect" title="En dash">en dash</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Em_dash" class="mw-redirect" title="Em dash">em dash</a>. To overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one adjacent hyphen to approximate these symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup> This typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, even though modern computer word processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font type.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes still used in desktop publishing systems include inserting a <a href="/wiki/Sentence_spacing" title="Sentence spacing">double space</a> between sentences,<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup> and the use of the <a href="/wiki/Typewriter_apostrophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Typewriter apostrophe">typewriter apostrophe</a>, <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">'</span>, and <a href="/wiki/Quotation_mark#Typewriters_and_early_computers" title="Quotation mark">straight quotes</a>, <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">"</span>, as quotation marks and <a href="/wiki/Prime_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime mark">prime marks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/List_of_proofreader%27s_marks" title="List of proofreader's marks">practice of underlining text in place of italics</a> and the use of all capitals to provide emphasis are additional examples of typographical conventions that derived from the limitations of the typewriter keyboard that still carry on today.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many older typewriters did not include a separate key for the numeral <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">1</span> or the exclamation point <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">!</span>, and some even older ones also lacked the numeral zero, <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">0</span>. Typists who trained on these machines learned the habit of using the lowercase letter <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">l</span> ("ell") for the digit <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">1</span>, and the uppercase <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">O</span> ("oh") for the zero. A cents symbol, <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">¢</span> was created by combining (<a href="/wiki/Overstrike" title="Overstrike">over-striking</a>) a lower case <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">c</span> with a slash character (typing <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">c</span>, then backspace, then <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">/</span>). Similarly, the exclamation point was created by combining an apostrophe and a period (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1071501304">.mw-parser-output .keyboard-key{border:1px solid #aaa;border-radius:0.2em;box-shadow:0.1em 0.1em 0.2em rgba(0,0,0,0.1);background-color:#f9f9f9;background-image:linear-gradient(to bottom,#eee,#f9f9f9,#eee);color:#000;padding:0.1em 0.3em;font-family:inherit;font-size:0.85em}</style><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">'</kbd>+<kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">.</kbd> ≈<span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">!</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Terminology_repurposed_for_the_computer_age">Terminology repurposed for the computer age <span class="anchor" id="Terminology"></span></span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Some terminology from the typewriter age has survived into the computer era.
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backspace" title="Backspace">backspace</a> (BS) – a keystroke that moved the cursor backwards one position (on a typewriter, this moved the physical platen backwards), to enable a character to be overtyped. Originally this was used to combine characters (for example, the sequence <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">'</span>, backspace, <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">.</span> to make <span class="nounderlines" style="border: 1px solid #ddd; background-color: #fdfdfd; padding: 1px 1px;">!</span>). Subsequently it facilitated "erase and retype" corrections (using <a href="/wiki/Correction_tape" title="Correction tape">correction tape</a> or <a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">fluid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup>) Only the latter concept has survived into the computer age.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carriage_return" title="Carriage return">carriage return</a> (CR) – return to the first column of text. (Most typewriters switched automatically to the next line. In computer systems, "line feed" (see below) is a function that is controlled independently.)<sup id="cite_ref-:4_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-128">[128]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cursor_(computers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursor (computers)">cursor</a> – a marker used to indicate where the next character will be printed. The cursor was originally a term to describe the clear slider on a <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup> on typewriters, it was the paper that moved and the insertion point was fixed.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cut,_copy,_and_paste" title="Cut, copy, and paste">cut and paste</a> – taking text, a numerical table, or an image and pasting it into a document. The term originated when such compound documents were created using manual <a href="/wiki/Paste_up" title="Paste up">paste up</a> techniques for typographic <a href="/wiki/Page_layout" title="Page layout">page layout</a>. Actual brushes and paste were later replaced by hot-wax machines equipped with cylinders that applied melted adhesive wax to developed prints of "typeset" copy. This copy was then cut out with knives and rulers, and slid into position on layout sheets on slanting layout tables. After the "copy" had been correctly positioned and squared up using a T-square and set square, it was pressed down with a brayer, or roller. The whole point of the exercise was to create so-called "camera-ready copy" which existed only to be photographed and then printed, usually by <a href="/wiki/Offset_lithography" class="mw-redirect" title="Offset lithography">offset lithography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">dead key</a> – a key that, when typed, does not advance the typing position, thus allowing another character to be overstruck on top of the original character. This was typically used to combine <a href="/wiki/Diacritical_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritical mark">diacritical marks</a> with letters they modified (e.g. <i>è</i> can be generated by first pressing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1071501304"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">`</kbd> and then <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1071501304"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">e</kbd>). In Europe, where most languages have diacritics, a typical mechanical arrangement meant that hitting the accent key typed the symbol but did not advance the carriage, consequently the next character to be typed 'landed' on the same position. It was this method that carried across to the computer age whereas an alternative method (press the space bar simultaneously) did not.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Line_feed" class="mw-redirect" title="Line feed">line feed</a> (LF), also called "newline" – Whereas most typewriters rolled the paper forward automatically on a "carriage return), this is an explicit <a href="/wiki/Control_character" title="Control character">control character</a> on computer systems that moves the <a href="/wiki/Cursor_(computers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursor (computers)">cursor</a> to the next on-screen line of text.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-128">[128]</a></sup> (But not to the beginning of that line –  a CR is also needed if that effect is desired.)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shift_key" title="Shift key">shift</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Modifier_key" title="Modifier key">modifier key</a> used to type capital letters and other alternate "upper case" characters; when pressed and held down, would shift a typewriter's mechanism to allow a different typebar impression (such as 'D' instead of 'd') to press into the ribbon and print on a page. The concept of a shift key or modifier key was later extended to <a href="/wiki/Ctrl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctrl">Ctrl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alt_key" title="Alt key">Alt</a>, <a href="/wiki/AltGr" class="mw-redirect" title="AltGr">AltGr</a> and Super ("Windows" or "Apple") keys on modern computer keyboards. The generalized concept of a shift key reached its apex in the <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a> <a href="/wiki/Space-cadet_keyboard" title="Space-cadet keyboard">space-cadet keyboard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tabulator_key" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabulator key">tab</a> (HT), shortened from "horizontal tab" or "tabulator stop" – caused the print position to advance horizontally to the next pre-set "tab stop". This was used for typing lists and tables with vertical columns of numbers or words.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup>
<ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Vertical_tab" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical tab">vertical tab</a> (VT) control character, named by analogy with HT, was designed for use with early computer <a href="/wiki/Line_printer" title="Line printer">line printers</a>, and would cause the <a href="/wiki/Fan-fold_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Fan-fold paper">fan-fold paper</a> to be fed until the next line's position.</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tty_(Unix)" title="Tty (Unix)">tty</a>, short for <a href="/wiki/Teletypewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletypewriter">teletypewriter</a> – used in <a href="/wiki/Unix-like" title="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> operating systems to designate a given "terminal".<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_effects">Social effects</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg/170px-CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg/255px-CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg/340px-CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="885" /></a><figcaption>Humorous "Get out! Can't you see I'm busy" postcard (1900s)</figcaption></figure>
<p>When Remington started marketing typewriters, the company assumed the machine would not be used for composing but for transcribing dictation, and that the person typing would be a woman. The 1800s <a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</a> had floral ornamentation on the case.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup>
</p><p>During World Wars I and II, increasing numbers of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_roles_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's roles in the World Wars">women</a> were entering the workforce. In the United States, women often started in the professional workplace as <a href="/wiki/Copy_typist" title="Copy typist">copy typists</a>. Being a typist was considered the right choice for a "good girl", meaning women who present themselves as being chaste and having good conduct.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup> According to the 1900 census, 94.9% of stenographers and typists were unmarried women.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup> This also led to an increase in schools and classes for typing in order to prepare for future job.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Moreover, the word typewriter also became associated with the women who typed during the timeperiod.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Questions about morals made a salacious businessman making sexual advances to a female typist into a cliché of office life, appearing in <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a> and movies. The "<a href="/wiki/Tijuana_bible" title="Tijuana bible">Tijuana bibles</a>" – adult comic books produced in Mexico for the American market, starting in the 1930s – often featured women typists. In one panel, a businessman in a three-piece suit, ogling his secretary's thigh, says, "Miss Higby, are you ready for—ahem!—er—dictation?"<sup id="cite_ref-ja_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ja-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>The typewriter was a useful machine during the censorship era of the Soviet government, starting during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1922). <a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a> was a form of surreptitious self-publication used when the government was censoring what literature the public could see. The Soviet government signed a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Decree" title="Soviet Decree">Decree on Press</a> which prohibited the publishing of any written work that had not been previously officially reviewed and approved.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup> Unapproved work was copied manually, most often on typewriters.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup> In 1983, a new law required anyone who needed a typewriter to get police permission to buy or keep one. In addition, the owner would have to register a typed sample of all its letters and numbers, to ensure that any illegal literature typed with it could be traced back to its source.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup> The typewriter became increasingly popular as the interest in prohibited books grew.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Writers_with_notable_associations_with_typewriters">Writers with notable associations with typewriters</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_adopters">Early adopters</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_James" title="Henry James">Henry James</a> dictated to a typist.<sup id="cite_ref-ja_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ja-63">[63]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> claimed in <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain%27s_Autobiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark Twain's Autobiography">his autobiography</a> that he was the first important writer to present a publisher with a typewritten <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a>, for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Tom_Sawyer" title="The Adventures of Tom Sawyer">The Adventures of Tom Sawyer</a></i> (1876). Research showed that Twain's memory was incorrect and that the first book submitted in typed form was <i><a href="/wiki/Life_on_the_Mississippi" title="Life on the Mississippi">Life on the Mississippi</a></i> (1883, also by Twain).<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Others">Others</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TheFaulknerPortable.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/TheFaulknerPortable.jpg/220px-TheFaulknerPortable.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/TheFaulknerPortable.jpg/330px-TheFaulknerPortable.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/TheFaulknerPortable.jpg/440px-TheFaulknerPortable.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Underwood_Typewriter_Company" title="Underwood Typewriter Company">Underwood</a> Universal Portable sits in his office at <a href="/wiki/Rowan_Oak" title="Rowan Oak">Rowan Oak</a>, which is now maintained by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mississippi" title="University of Mississippi">University of Mississippi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oxford,_Mississippi" title="Oxford, Mississippi">Oxford</a> as a museum.</figcaption></figure>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Burroughs" title="William S. Burroughs">William S. Burroughs</a> wrote in some of his novels – and possibly believed – that "a machine he called the 'Soft Typewriter' was writing our lives, and our books, into existence", according to a book review in <i>The New Yorker</i>. In the <a href="/wiki/Naked_Lunch_(film)" title="Naked Lunch (film)">film adaptation</a> of his novel <i>Naked Lunch</i>, his typewriter is a living, insect-like entity (voiced by North American actor <a href="/wiki/Peter_Boretski" title="Peter Boretski">Peter Boretski</a>) and actually dictates the book to him.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> was accustomed to typing from awkward positions: "balancing his typewriter on his attic bed, because there was no room on his desk".<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kerouac" title="Jack Kerouac">Jack Kerouac</a>, a fast typist at 100 words per minute, typed <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Road" title="On the Road">On the Road</a></i> on a roll of paper so he would not be interrupted by having to change the paper. Within two weeks of starting to write <i>On the Road</i>, Kerouac had one single-spaced paragraph, 120 feet (37 m) long. Some scholars say the scroll was shelf paper; others contend it was a Thermal-fax roll; another theory is that the roll consisted of sheets of architect's paper taped together.<sup id="cite_ref-ja_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ja-63">[63]</a></sup> Kerouac himself stated that he used 100-foot (30 m) rolls of <a href="/wiki/Teletype" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletype">teletype</a> paper.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Don_Marquis" title="Don Marquis">Don Marquis</a> purposely used the limitations of a typewriter (or more precisely, a particular typist) in his <i><a href="/wiki/Archy_and_mehitabel" class="mw-redirect" title="Archy and mehitabel">archy and mehitabel</a></i> series of newspaper columns, which were later compiled into a series of books. According to his literary conceit, a <a href="/wiki/Cockroach" title="Cockroach">cockroach</a> named "Archy" was a <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnated</a> <a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free-verse</a> poet, who would type articles overnight by jumping onto the keys of a manual typewriter. The writings were typed completely in lower case, because of the cockroach's inability to generate the heavy force needed to operate the shift key. The lone exception is the poem "CAPITALS AT LAST" from <i>archys life of mehitabel</i>, written in 1933.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Late_users">Late users</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Polt" title="Richard Polt">Richard Polt</a>, a philosophy professor at <a href="/wiki/Xavier_University" title="Xavier University">Xavier University</a> in Cincinnati who collects typewriters, edits <i>ETCetera</i>, a quarterly magazine about historic writing machines, and is the author of the book <i>The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist's Companion for the 21st Century</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-PoltBook_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoltBook-104">[104]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PoltWeb_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoltWeb-35">[35]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Gibson" title="William Gibson">William Gibson</a> used a Hermes 2000 model manual typewriter to write <i><a href="/wiki/Neuromancer" title="Neuromancer">Neuromancer</a></i> and half of <i><a href="/wiki/Count_Zero" title="Count Zero">Count Zero</a></i> before a mechanical failure and lack of replacement parts forced him to upgrade to an <a href="/wiki/Apple_IIc" title="Apple IIc">Apple IIc</a> computer.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_Ellison" title="Harlan Ellison">Harlan Ellison</a> used typewriters for his entire career, and when he was no longer able to have them repaired, learned to do it himself; he repeatedly stated his belief that computers are bad for writing, maintaining that "Art is not supposed to be easier!"<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cormac_McCarthy" title="Cormac McCarthy">Cormac McCarthy</a> wrote his novels on an <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Lettera_32" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivetti Lettera 32">Olivetti Lettera 32</a> typewriter until his death. In 2009, the Lettera he obtained from a pawn shop in 1963, on which nearly all his novels and screenplays have been written, was auctioned for charity at <a href="/wiki/Christie%27s" title="Christie's">Christie's</a> for US$254,500;<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup> McCarthy obtained an identical replacement for $20 to continue writing on.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Joiner_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joiner-149">[149]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Will_Self" title="Will Self">Will Self</a> explains why he uses a manual typewriter: "I think the computer user does their thinking on the screen, and the non-computer user is compelled, because he or she has to retype a whole text, to do a lot more thinking in the head."<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Kaczynski" title="Ted Kaczynski">Ted Kaczynski</a> (the "Unabomber") infamously used two old manual typewriters to write his polemic essays and messages.<sup id="cite_ref-Joiner_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joiner-149">[149]</a></sup></li>
<li>Actor <a href="/wiki/Tom_Hanks" title="Tom Hanks">Tom Hanks</a> uses and collects manual typewriters.<sup id="cite_ref-NY_Times_typewriter_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NY_Times_typewriter-151">[151]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Joiner_149-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joiner-149">[149]</a></sup> To control the size of his collection, he gifts autographed machines to appreciative fans and repair shops around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Patkin_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patkin-152">[152]</a></sup></li>
<li>Historian <a href="/wiki/David_McCullough" title="David McCullough">David McCullough</a> used a Royal typewriter to compose his books.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup></li>
<li>Biographer <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Robert Caro</a> has used various models of the Smith Corona Electra 210 to write his biographies of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Moses" title="Robert Moses">Robert Moses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Typewriters_in_popular_culture">Typewriters in popular culture</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_music">In music</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Satie" title="Erik Satie">Erik Satie</a>'s 1917 score for the ballet <a href="/wiki/Parade_(ballet)" title="Parade (ballet)"><i>Parade</i></a> includes a "<i>Mach. à écrire"</i> as a percussion instrument, along with (elsewhere) a <a href="/wiki/Roulette_wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Roulette wheel">roulette wheel</a> and a pistol.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></sup></li>
<li>The composer <a href="/wiki/Leroy_Anderson" title="Leroy Anderson">Leroy Anderson</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Typewriter" title="The Typewriter">The Typewriter</a></i> (1950) for orchestra and typewriter, and it has since been used as the theme for numerous radio programs. The solo instrument is a real typewriter played by a percussionist. The piece was later made famous by comedian <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Lewis" title="Jerry Lewis">Jerry Lewis</a> as part of his regular routine both on screen and stage, most notably in the 1963 film <i><a href="/wiki/Who%27s_Minding_the_Store%3F" title="Who's Minding the Store?">Who's Minding the Store?</a></i>.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Boston_Typewriter_Orchestra" title="Boston Typewriter Orchestra">Boston Typewriter Orchestra</a> (BTO), a comedic musical percussion group, has performed at numerous art festivals, clubs, and parties since 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-NPR-BTO_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPR-BTO-156">[156]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BTO_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BTO-157">[157]</a></sup></li>
<li>South Korean improviser Ryu Hankil frequently performs on typewriters, most prominently in his 2009 album <i>Becoming Typewriter</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other">Other</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag,_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg/220px-Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg/330px-Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg/440px-Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3421" data-file-height="2833" /></a><figcaption>Typewriting speed competition <br />(The Hague, 1954)</figcaption></figure>
<ul><li>The 2012 French comedy movie <i><a href="/wiki/Populaire_(film)" title="Populaire (film)">Populaire</a></i>, starring Romain Duris and Déborah François, centers on a young secretary in the 1950s striving to win typewriting speed competitions.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup></li>
<li>The manga (2015–2020) and anime (2018) <i><a href="/wiki/Violet_Evergarden" title="Violet Evergarden">Violet Evergarden</a></i> series follows a disabled war veteran who learns to type because her handwriting has been impaired, and soon she becomes a popular typist.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/California_Typewriter" title="California Typewriter">California Typewriter</a></i>, a 2016 documentary film, investigates the culture of typewriter enthusiasts, including an <a href="/wiki/Eponymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Eponymous">eponymous</a> repair store in Berkeley, California.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Forensic_examination">Forensic examination</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Typewritten documents may be examined by <a href="/wiki/Questioned_document_examination" title="Questioned document examination">forensic document examiners</a>. This is done primarily to determine 1) the make and/or model of the typewriter used to produce a document, or 2) whether or not a particular suspect typewriter might have been used to produce a document.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-160">[160]</a></sup>
</p><p>The determination of a make and/or model of typewriter is a 'classification' problem and several systems have been developed for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-160">[160]</a></sup> These include the original Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version)<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup> and (Non-Pica version)<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup> and the TYPE system developed by Philip Bouffard,<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police" title="Royal Canadian Mounted Police">Royal Canadian Mounted Police</a>'s Termatrex Typewriter classification system,<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Interpol" title="Interpol">Interpol</a>'s typewriter classification system,<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup> among others.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_160-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-160">[160]</a></sup>
</p><p>The earliest reference in fictional literature to the potential identification of a typewriter as having produced a document was by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote the Sherlock Holmes short story "<a href="/wiki/A_Case_of_Identity" title="A Case of Identity">A Case of Identity</a>" in 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-crown_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crown-166">[166]</a></sup>
</p><p>In non-fiction, the first <a href="/wiki/Forensic_document_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic document examination">document examiner</a><sup id="cite_ref-crown_166-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crown-166">[166]</a></sup> to describe how a typewriter might be identified was William E. Hagan who wrote, in 1894, "All typewriter machines, even when using the same kind of type, become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them".<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a></sup> Other early discussions of the topic were provided by <a href="/wiki/Albert_S._Osborn" title="Albert S. Osborn">A. S. Osborn</a> in his 1908 treatise, <i>Typewriting as Evidence</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a></sup> and again in his 1929 textbook, <i>Questioned Documents</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a></sup>
</p><p>A modern description of the examination procedure is laid out in ASTM Standard E2494-08 (Standard Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items).<sup id="cite_ref-astm_TW_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astm_TW-170">[170]</a></sup>
</p><p>Typewriter examination was used in the <a href="/wiki/Leopold_and_Loeb" title="Leopold and Loeb">Leopold and Loeb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alger_Hiss" title="Alger Hiss">Alger Hiss</a> cases.
</p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, typewriters (together with <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing presses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copy_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Copy machine">copy machines</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">computer printers</a>) were a controlled technology, with <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> in charge of maintaining records of the typewriters and their owners.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the <a href="/wiki/First_Department" title="First Department">First Department</a> of each organization sent data on organization's typewriters to the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This posed a significant risk for dissidents and <a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">samizdat</a> authors. In <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a>, according to State Council Decree No. 98 of March 28, 1983, owning a typewriter, both by businesses or by private persons, was subject to an approval given by the local police authorities. People previously convicted of any crime or those who because of their behaviour were considered to be "a danger to public order or to the security of the state" were refused approval. In addition, once a year, typewriter owners had to take the typewriter to the local police station, where they would be asked to type a sample of all the typewriter's characters. It was also forbidden to borrow, lend, or repair typewriters other than at the places that had been authorized by the police.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Collections">Collections</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Public and private collections of typewriters exist around the world, including:<sup id="cite_ref-Ways_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ways-173">[173]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>Schreibmaschinenmuseum Peter Mitterhofer (Parcines, Italy)<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></sup></li>
<li>Museo della Macchina da Scrivere (Milan, Italy)<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></sup></li>
<li>Liverpool Typewriter Museum (Liverpool, England)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Printing#Collection" title="Museum of Printing">Museum of Printing</a> – MoP (Haverhill, Massachusetts, US)</li>
<li>Chestnut Ridge Typewriter Museum (Fairmont, West Virginia, US)</li>
<li>Technical Museum of the Empordà (Figueres, Girona, Spain)</li>
<li>Musée de la machine à écrire (Lausanne, Switzerland)<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup></li>
<li>Lu Hanbin Typewriter Museum Shanghai (Shanghai, China)</li>
<li>Wattens Typewriter Museum (Wattens, Austria)</li>
<li>German Typewriter Museum (Bayreuth, Germany)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tayfun_Talipo%C4%9Flu_Typewriter_Museum" title="Tayfun Talipoğlu Typewriter Museum">Tayfun Talipoğlu Typewriter Museum</a> (Odunpazarı, Eskişehir, Turkey)</li></ul>
<p>Several online-only virtual museums collect and display information about typewriters and their history:
</p>
<ul><li>Virtual Typewriter Museum<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></sup></li>
<li>Chuck & Rich's Antique Typewriter Website</li>
<li>Mr. Martin's Typewriter Museum<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Gallery">Gallery</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter"><img alt="Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/120px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/180px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/240px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2376" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Skrivekugle_1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hansen Writing Ball, invented in 1865 (1870 model)"><img alt="Hansen Writing Ball, invented in 1865 (1870 model)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Skrivekugle_1870.jpg/120px-Skrivekugle_1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Skrivekugle_1870.jpg/180px-Skrivekugle_1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Skrivekugle_1870.jpg/240px-Skrivekugle_1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="334" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a>, invented in 1865 (1870 model)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_(page_1).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1868 patent drawing for the Sholes, Glidden, and Soule typewriter"><img alt="1868 patent drawing for the Sholes, Glidden, and Soule typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg/84px-Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg/126px-Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg/168px-Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">1868 <a href="/wiki/Patent_drawing" title="Patent drawing">patent drawing</a> for the Sholes, Glidden, and Soule typewriter</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hammond_1B_typewriter.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881"><img alt="Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hammond_1B_typewriter.png/120px-Hammond_1B_typewriter.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hammond_1B_typewriter.png/180px-Hammond_1B_typewriter.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hammond_1B_typewriter.png/240px-Hammond_1B_typewriter.png 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="661" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1910s_typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hammond 1B, as used by a newspaper office in Saskatoon around 1910"><img alt="Hammond 1B, as used by a newspaper office in Saskatoon around 1910" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/1910s_typewriter.jpg/120px-1910s_typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/1910s_typewriter.jpg/180px-1910s_typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/1910s_typewriter.jpg/240px-1910s_typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="1593" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Hammond 1B, as used by a newspaper office in <a href="/wiki/Saskatoon" title="Saskatoon">Saskatoon</a> around 1910</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours,_France,_1919_(29992301794).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="US Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919"><img alt="US Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg/120px-Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg/180px-Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg/240px-Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3040" data-file-height="2256" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">US Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Typewriters.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Typebars in a 1920s typewriter"><img alt="Typebars in a 1920s typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Typewriters.jpg/120px-Typewriters.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Typewriters.jpg/180px-Typewriters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Typewriters.jpg/240px-Typewriters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2689" data-file-height="1998" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Typebars in a 1920s typewriter</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese typewriter produced by Shuangge, with 2,450 characters"><img alt="Chinese typewriter produced by Shuangge, with 2,450 characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chinese_typewriter.jpg/120px-Chinese_typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chinese_typewriter.jpg/180px-Chinese_typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chinese_typewriter.jpg/240px-Chinese_typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1377" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriter</a> produced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shuangge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shuangge (page does not exist)">Shuangge</a>, with 2,450 characters</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Japanese typewriter SH-280, a small machine with 2,268 characters"><img alt="Japanese typewriter SH-280, a small machine with 2,268 characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg/120px-Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg/180px-Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg/240px-Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="1443" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_typewriter" title="Japanese typewriter">Japanese typewriter</a> SH-280, a small machine with 2,268 characters</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Hermes 3000 typewriter"><img alt="Hermes 3000 typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG/120px-Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG/180px-Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG/240px-Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hermes_typewriters" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hermes typewriters">Hermes 3000 typewriter</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout"><img alt="1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG/120px-1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG/180px-1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG/240px-1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2520" data-file-height="2520" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese typewriter at Deutsches Technikmuseum"><img alt="Chinese typewriter at Deutsches Technikmuseum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg/120px-Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg/180px-Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg/240px-Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Chinese typewriter at <i>Deutsches Technikmuseum</i></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MEK_II-327.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="typewriter robotron S 1001 from VEB Robotron-Elektronik at the GDR, this sample is owned by the MEK"><img alt="typewriter robotron S 1001 from VEB Robotron-Elektronik at the GDR, this sample is owned by the MEK" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MEK_II-327.jpg/85px-MEK_II-327.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MEK_II-327.jpg/127px-MEK_II-327.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MEK_II-327.jpg/169px-MEK_II-327.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2201" data-file-height="3118" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">typewriter robotron S 1001 from <a href="/wiki/VEB_Robotron" title="VEB Robotron">VEB Robotron</a>-Elektronik at the <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">GDR</a>, this sample is owned by the <a href="/wiki/Museum_Europ%C3%A4ischer_Kulturen" title="Museum Europäischer Kulturen">MEK</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Personal typewriter of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, the fifth Qajar king of Persia (Iran), made in late 19th century"><img alt="Personal typewriter of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, the fifth Qajar king of Persia (Iran), made in late 19th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg/120px-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg/180px-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg/240px-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Personal typewriter of <a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar</a>, the fifth Qajar king of Persia (Iran), made in late 19th century</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter"><img alt="An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg/120px-Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg/180px-Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg/240px-Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorded_keyboard" title="Chorded keyboard">Chorded keyboard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">Computer keyboard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duplicating_machines" title="Duplicating machines">Duplicating machines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friden_Flexowriter" title="Friden Flexowriter">Friden Flexowriter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/JOHNNIAC" title="JOHNNIAC">JOHNNIAC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">Letter (alphabet)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Projection_keyboard" title="Projection keyboard">Projection keyboard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teletype_Model_33" title="Teletype Model 33">Teletype Model 33</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">Typeface</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Typescript_(manuscript)" class="mw-redirect" title="Typescript (manuscript)">Typescript</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Typewriter_desk" title="Typewriter desk">Typewriter desk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_1102" title="UNIVAC 1102">UNIVAC 1102</a></li></ul></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAcocella2007" class="citation magazine cs1">Acocella, Joan (April 9, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=1">"The Typing Life: How writers used to write"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011413/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=1">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Typing+Life%3A+How+writers+used+to+write&rft.date=2007-04-09&rft.aulast=Acocella&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewyorker.com%2Farts%2Fcritics%2Fbooks%2F2007%2F04%2F09%2F070409crbo_books_acocella%3FcurrentPage%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org/scrittura/">"Scrittura"</a>. <i>museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org</i> (in Italian). Museo dinamico della tecnologia Adriano Olivetti. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621081930/http://museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org/scrittura/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org&rft.atitle=Scrittura&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseocasertaolivetti.altervista.org%2Fscrittura%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill_Henry/MillHenryPatents.htm">"Henry Mill Patents"</a>. Todayinsci.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121128013806/http://www.todayinsci.com/M/Mill_Henry/MillHenryPatents.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-11-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Henry+Mill+Patents&rft.pub=Todayinsci.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.todayinsci.com%2FM%2FMill_Henry%2FMillHenryPatents.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/keyboard.html">"History of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, The bases of digital computers, typewriter and computer keyboard"</a>. <i>history-computer.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160905195941/http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Basis/keyboard.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-09-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history-computer.com&rft.atitle=History+of+Computers+and+Computing%2C+Birth+of+the+modern+computer%2C+The+bases+of+digital+computers%2C+typewriter+and+computer+keyboard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory-computer.com%2FModernComputer%2FBasis%2Fkeyboard.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGianfrancesco_Rambelli1844" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gianfrancesco Rambelli (1844). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Om_KVDRCK8EC&pg=PA150"><i>Intorno invenzioni e scoperte italiane</i></a> (in Italian). Modena: Tipografia Vincenzi e Rossi. p. 150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intorno+invenzioni+e+scoperte+italiane&rft.place=Modena&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Tipografia+Vincenzi+e+Rossi&rft.date=1844&rft.au=Gianfrancesco+Rambelli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOm_KVDRCK8EC%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Utterback-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Utterback_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFUtterback1996" class="citation book cs1">Utterback, James M. Utterback (1996). <i>Mastering The Dynamics Of Innovation</i> (2nd ed.). Harvard Business Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87584-740-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87584-740-5"><bdi>978-0-87584-740-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+The+Dynamics+Of+Innovation&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+Business+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-87584-740-5&rft.aulast=Utterback&rft.aufirst=James+M.+Utterback&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.moma.org/collection/works/4576">"Ettore Sottsass, Perry King. Valentine Portable Typewriter. 1968"</a>. <i>The Museum of Modern Art</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Museum+of+Modern+Art&rft.atitle=Ettore+Sottsass%2C+Perry+King.+Valentine+Portable+Typewriter.+1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.moma.org%2Fcollection%2Fworks%2F4576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.si.edu/es/object/valentine%3Achndm_1986-99-40-a_b">"Valentine, Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Institution</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Institution&rft.atitle=Valentine%2C+Cooper+Hewitt%2C+Smithsonian+Design+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.si.edu%2Fes%2Fobject%2Fvalentine%253Achndm_1986-99-40-a_b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://designmuseum.org/designers/ettore-sottsass">"ETTORE SOTTSASS"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Design_Museum" title="Design Museum">Design Museum</a>, London. 19 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ETTORE+SOTTSASS&rft.pub=Design+Museum%2C+London&rft.date=2016-05-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdesignmuseum.org%2Fdesigners%2Fettore-sottsass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O146042/valentine-typewriter-sottsass-ettore/">"Valentine"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a>. February 25, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Valentine&rft.pub=Victoria+and+Albert+Museum&rft.date=2008-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollections.vam.ac.uk%2Fitem%2FO146042%2Fvalentine-typewriter-sottsass-ettore%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm">"Typewriters"</a>. <i>Early Office Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Early+Office+Museum&rft.atitle=Typewriters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.officemuseum.com%2Ftypewriters.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://todayinsci.com/Events/Typewriter/Chirographer-SciAm.htm">"Thurber's Chirographer – Scientific American"</a>. <i>todayinsci.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150327043255/http://todayinsci.com/Events/Typewriter/Chirographer-SciAm.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-03-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-01-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=todayinsci.com&rft.atitle=Thurber%27s+Chirographer+%E2%80%93+Scientific+American&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftodayinsci.com%2FEvents%2FTypewriter%2FChirographer-SciAm.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/scienza-tecnologia/schede/ST120-00001/">"Cembalo Scrivano – macchina per scrivere – Industria, manifattura, artigianato"</a>. <i>Lombardia Beni Culturali</i> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lombardia+Beni+Culturali&rft.atitle=Cembalo+Scrivano+%E2%80%93+macchina+per+scrivere+%E2%80%93+Industria%2C+manifattura%2C+artigianato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lombardiabeniculturali.it%2Fscienza-tecnologia%2Fschede%2FST120-00001%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAdler1997" class="citation book cs1">Adler, Michael (1997). <i>Antique typewriters: from Creed to QWERTY</i>. Atglen, Pa.: Schiffer Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7643-0132-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7643-0132-2"><bdi>978-0-7643-0132-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antique+typewriters%3A+from+Creed+to+QWERTY&rft.place=Atglen%2C+Pa.&rft.pub=Schiffer+Pub.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7643-0132-2&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=%2Fmoa%2Fscia%2Fscia1017%2F&tif=00011.TIF&cite=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DABF2204-1017-3">"Type Writing Machine"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. New. Vol. 17, no. 1. New York. 1867-07-06. p. 3<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-01-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Type+Writing+Machine.&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1867-07-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fpageviewer%3Fframes%3D1%26coll%3Dmoa%26view%3D50%26root%3D%252Fmoa%252Fscia%252Fscia1017%252F%26tif%3D00011.TIF%26cite%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%252Fcgi-bin%252Fmoa%252Fmoa-cgi%253Fnotisid%253DABF2204-1017-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wN4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA751">"This is How Some of the World's Familiar Inventions Looked at the Time of Birth"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>. May 1929. p. 751.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=This+is+How+Some+of+the+World%27s+Familiar+Inventions+Looked+at+the+Time+of+Birth&rft.pages=751&rft.date=1929-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwN4DAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA751&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archives.godrej.com/assets/pdf/The_Archives_Times_Mar_Apr_2013.pdf">"The archives times – March – April 2013 – Lost and found, a 1984 photo revives those times"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Godrej archives<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+archives+times+%E2%80%93+March+%E2%80%93+April+2013+%E2%80%93+Lost+and+found%2C+a+1984+photo+revives+those+times&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.godrej.com%2Fassets%2Fpdf%2FThe_Archives_Times_Mar_Apr_2013.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Silver Reed<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archives.godrej.com/assets/pdf/Steno's_Handbook.pdf">"From behind the scenes – Godrej Prima and the Stenographers handbook"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.archives.godrej.com</i>. Godrej archives<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.archives.godrej.com&rft.atitle=From+behind+the+scenes+%E2%80%93+Godrej+Prima+and+the+Stenographers+handbook&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.godrej.com%2Fassets%2Fpdf%2FSteno%27s_Handbook.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mares-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mares_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMares1909" class="citation book cs1">Mares, G. C. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201721"><i>The History of the Typewriter</i></a>. London: Guilbert Pitman. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201721/page/n234">230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Typewriter&rft.place=London&rft.pages=230&rft.pub=Guilbert+Pitman&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Mares&rft.aufirst=G.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.201721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm">"Early Office Museum"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140102201621/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+Office+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.officemuseum.com%2Ftypewriters.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=5383">"Rasmus Malling-Hansen Invents the Hansen Writing Ball, the First Commercially Produced Typewriter"</a>. <i>History of Information</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+Information&rft.atitle=Rasmus+Malling-Hansen+Invents+the+Hansen+Writing+Ball%2C+the+First+Commercially+Produced+Typewriter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofinformation.com%2Fdetail.php%3Fid%3D5383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Devil-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Devil_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2004" class="citation book cs1">Larson, Erik (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJp22rZDOZQC"><i>The Devil in the White City: A Saga of Magic and Murder at the Fair that Changed America</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-7631-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-7631-4"><bdi>978-1-4000-7631-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJp22rZDOZQC">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-06-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Devil+in+the+White+City%3A+A+Saga+of+Magic+and+Murder+at+the+Fair+that+Changed+America&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-7631-4&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkJp22rZDOZQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3lives-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3lives_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHendrickson,_Walter_B.1956" class="citation journal cs1">Hendrickson, Walter B. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100806034158/http://dig.lib.niu.edu/ISHS/ishs-1956autumn/ishs-1956autumn-271.pdf">"The Three Lives of Frank H. Hall"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society</i>. <b>49</b> (3). University of Illinois Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dig.lib.niu.edu/ISHS/ishs-1956autumn/ishs-1956autumn-271.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-08-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Illinois+State+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Three+Lives+of+Frank+H.+Hall&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1956&rft.au=Hendrickson%2C+Walter+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdig.lib.niu.edu%2FISHS%2Fishs-1956autumn%2Fishs-1956autumn-271.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Museum-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Museum_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous2011" class="citation web cs1">Anonymous (24 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120427203920/http://www.aph.org/museum/braillewriters/1.html">"Hall Braille Writer"</a>. American Printing House for the Blind, Inc. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aph.org/museum/braillewriters/1.html">the original</a> on 27 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hall+Braille+Writer&rft.pub=American+Printing+House+for+the+Blind%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2011-04-24&rft.au=Anonymous&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aph.org%2Fmuseum%2Fbraillewriters%2F1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOtto_Burghagen1898" class="citation book cs1">Otto Burghagen (1898). <i>Die Schreibmaschine. Illustrierte Beschreibung aller gangbaren Schreibmaschinen nebst gründlicher Anleitung zum Arbeiten auf sämtlichen Systemen</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Schreibmaschine.+Illustrierte+Beschreibung+aller+gangbaren+Schreibmaschinen+nebst+gr%C3%BCndlicher+Anleitung+zum+Arbeiten+auf+s%C3%A4mtlichen+Systemen&rft.date=1898&rft.au=Otto+Burghagen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDieter_Eberwein" class="citation book cs1">Dieter Eberwein. <i>Nietzsches Schreibkugel. Ein Blick auf Nietzsches Schreibmaschinenzeit durch die Restauration der Schreibkugel. Eberwein-Typoskriptverlag</i>. Schauenburg 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nietzsches+Schreibkugel.+Ein+Blick+auf+Nietzsches+Schreibmaschinenzeit+durch+die+Restauration+der+Schreibkugel.+Eberwein-Typoskriptverlag&rft.pub=Schauenburg+2005.&rft.au=Dieter+Eberwein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJohanne_Agerskov1925" class="citation book cs1">Johanne Agerskov (1925). <i><span></span></i>Hvem er Skrivekuglens Opfinder?<i><span></span></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hvem+er+Skrivekuglens+Opfinder%3F&rft.date=1925&rft.au=Johanne+Agerskov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/drawing-for-a-typewriter">"Drawing for a Typewriter"</a>. <i>docsteach.org</i>. Records of the Patent and Trademark Office, Record Group 241. June 23, 1868.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=docsteach.org&rft.atitle=Drawing+for+a+Typewriter&rft.date=1868-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.docsteach.org%2Fdocuments%2Fdocument%2Fdrawing-for-a-typewriter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJocherBliven1954" class="citation journal cs1">Jocher, Katharine; Bliven, Bruce (1954). "Reviewed work: The Typewriter and the Men Who Made It., Richard N. Current; the Wonderful Writing Machine., Bruce Bliven, Jr". <i>Social Forces</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 197–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2573562">10.2307/2573562</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2573562">2573562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Forces&rft.atitle=Reviewed+work%3A+The+Typewriter+and+the+Men+Who+Made+It.%2C+Richard+N.+Current%3B+the+Wonderful+Writing+Machine.%2C+Bruce+Bliven%2C+Jr&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=197-198&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2573562&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2573562%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jocher&rft.aufirst=Katharine&rft.au=Bliven%2C+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-WCH-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WCH_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WCH_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/Records/Article/CS2697">"First Practical Typewriter"</a>. Wisconsin Historical Society. March 22, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Practical+Typewriter&rft.pub=Wisconsin+Historical+Society&rft.date=2007-03-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisconsinhistory.org%2FRecords%2FArticle%2FCS2697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Current-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Current_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Current_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCurrent1949" class="citation journal cs1">Current, Richard N. (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4632060">"The Original Typewriter Enterprise 1867–1873"</a>. <i>The Wisconsin Magazine of History</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 391–407. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4632060">4632060</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wisconsin+Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=The+Original+Typewriter+Enterprise+1867%E2%80%931873&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=391-407&rft.date=1949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4632060%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Current&rft.aufirst=Richard+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4632060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-EOM-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EOM_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EOM_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EOM_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters_index.htm">"Antique Index Typewriters"</a>. <i>Early Office Museum</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160702212611/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters_index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Early+Office+Museum&rft.atitle=Antique+Index+Typewriters&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.officemuseum.com%2Ftypewriters_index.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-PoltWeb-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PoltWeb_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PoltWeb_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PoltWeb_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPolt" class="citation web cs1">Polt, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/simplex.html">"Simplex"</a>. <i>The Classic Typewriter Page</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210606050123/https://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/simplex.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Classic+Typewriter+Page&rft.atitle=Simplex&rft.aulast=Polt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsite.xavier.edu%2Fpolt%2Ftypewriters%2Fsimplex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mignon2-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mignon2_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mignon2_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/brands/index.php3?machine=indexmignon2&cat=is">"The Mignon 2"</a>. <i>The Virtual Typewriter Museum</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161003035122/http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/brands/index.php3?machine=indexmignon2&cat=is">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Virtual+Typewriter+Museum&rft.atitle=The+Mignon+2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.typewritermuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fbrands%2Findex.php3%3Fmachine%3Dindexmignon2%26cat%3Dis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMullaney2016" class="citation journal cs1">Mullaney, Thomas S. (2016). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44166285">"Controlling the Kanjisphere: The Rise of the Sino-Japanese Typewriter and the Birth of CJK"</a></span>. <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>75</b> (3): 725–753. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021911816000577">10.1017/S0021911816000577</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9118">0021-9118</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44166285">44166285</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Controlling+the+Kanjisphere%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Sino-Japanese+Typewriter+and+the+Birth+of+CJK&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=725-753&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=0021-9118&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44166285%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021911816000577&rft.aulast=Mullaney&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44166285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F014043a0">"The Remington Type-Writing Machine"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>14</b> (342): 43–44. 1876. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1876Natur..14...43.">1876Natur..14...43.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F014043a0">10.1038/014043a0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Remington+Type-Writing+Machine&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=342&rft.pages=43-44&rft.date=1876&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F014043a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1876Natur..14...43.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F014043a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co37725/two-hammond-ideal-typewriters-one-with-case-typewriter">"Two Hammond 'Ideal' typewriters, one with case"</a>. <i>Science Museum Group Collection</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Museum+Group+Collection&rft.atitle=Two+Hammond+%27Ideal%27+typewriters%2C+one+with+case&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk%2Fobjects%2Fco37725%2Ftwo-hammond-ideal-typewriters-one-with-case-typewriter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMcCormack1907" class="citation journal cs1">McCormack, Harry S. (2 May 1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4x1LAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA385">"Type-Writing Machine"</a>. <i>Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office</i>. <b>134</b>: 385.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Official+Gazette+of+the+United+States+Patent+Office&rft.atitle=Type-Writing+Machine&rft.volume=134&rft.pages=385&rft.date=1907-05-02&rft.aulast=McCormack&rft.aufirst=Harry+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4x1LAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_informal.html">"The typewriter: an informal history"</a>. <i>IBM Archives</i>. 2003-01-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM+Archives&rft.atitle=The+typewriter%3A+an+informal+history&rft.date=2003-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fibm%2Fhistory%2Fexhibits%2Fmodelb%2Fmodelb_informal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLyonsMarquilhas2017" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Martyn; Marquilhas, Rita (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mhUwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA205"><i>Approaches to the History of Written Culture: A World Inscribed</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-54136-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-54136-5"><bdi>978-3-319-54136-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Approaches+to+the+History+of+Written+Culture%3A+A+World+Inscribed&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-319-54136-5&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Martyn&rft.au=Marquilhas%2C+Rita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmhUwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Robert1-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robert1_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRobert" class="citation web cs1">Robert, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/index.php3?machine=daugh&cat=kf">"Daugherty"</a>. <i>Collection</i>. The Virtual Typewriter Museum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110729132951/http://www.typewritermuseum.org/collection/index.php3?machine=daugh&cat=kf">Archived</a> from the original on July 29, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collection&rft.atitle=Daugherty&rft.aulast=Robert&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.typewritermuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Findex.php3%3Fmachine%3Ddaugh%26cat%3Dkf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Seaver1-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seaver1_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSeaver2011" class="citation web cs1">Seaver, Alan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130511211636/http://machinesoflovinggrace.com/ptf/VisDaughertyPittsburg.html">"Daugherty Visible"</a>. <i>Machines of Loving Grace website</i>. Alan Seaver. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://machinesoflovinggrace.com/ptf/VisDaughertyPittsburg.html">the original</a> on May 11, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Machines+of+Loving+Grace+website&rft.atitle=Daugherty+Visible&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Seaver&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmachinesoflovinggrace.com%2Fptf%2FVisDaughertyPittsburg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMosher1917" class="citation journal cs1">Mosher, Charles Philo (10 April 1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DngbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA537">"Type-Writing Machine"</a>. <i>Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office</i>: 537.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Official+Gazette+of+the+United+States+Patent+Office&rft.atitle=Type-Writing+Machine&rft.pages=537&rft.date=1917-04-10&rft.aulast=Mosher&rft.aufirst=Charles+Philo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDngbAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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Alan Seaver.
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sevenels.net/typewriters/3banks.htm">"Three-Bank Typewriters"</a></span>
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<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.typewriters101.com/collection.html">"My Typewriter Collection: Bar-Let Model 2"</a>.</span>
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Smithsonian National Museum of American History.
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.si.edu/object/corona-typewriter%3Anmah_849921">"Corona No. 3 Typewriter"</a></span>
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<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.typewriters101.com/store/p430/1921_Corona_Folding_No._3.html">"1921 Corona Folding No. 3"</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-ja-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ja_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ja_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ja_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ja_63-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=all">Newyorker.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929165400/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=all">Archived</a> 2007-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Acocella, Joan, "The Typing Life: How writers used to write", <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i>, April 9, 2007, a review of <i>The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting</i> (Cornell) 2007, by Darren Wershler-Henry</span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGould1928" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, R. T. (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41357995">"The Modern Typewriter and ITS Probable Future Development"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Society of Arts</i>. <b>76</b> (3940): 717–738. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-9114">0035-9114</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41357995">41357995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Arts&rft.atitle=The+Modern+Typewriter+and+ITS+Probable+Future+Development&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=3940&rft.pages=717-738&rft.date=1928&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41357995%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0035-9114&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=R.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41357995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC100.pdf">"Bert Kerschbaumer, "The Cahill Electrical Typewriters," ETCetera No. 100 (December 2012)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160730133043/http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC100.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-07-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bert+Kerschbaumer%2C+%22The+Cahill+Electrical+Typewriters%2C%22+ETCetera+No.+100+%28December+2012%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetconline.org%2Fbackissues%2FETC100.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC033.pdf">"P. Robert Aubert, "The Last Service Call," ETCetera No. 33(December 1995)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160730133642/http://etconline.org/backissues/ETC033.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-07-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=P.+Robert+Aubert%2C+%22The+Last+Service+Call%2C%22+ETCetera+No.+33%28December+1995%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetconline.org%2Fbackissues%2FETC033.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://patimg2.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=01286351&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D1286351.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F1286351%2526RS%3DPN%2F1286351&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page">"U.S. Patent 1,286,351 filed in May, 1910, and issued in December, 1918"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161225235913/http://patimg2.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=01286351&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D1286351.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F1286351%2526RS%3DPN%2F1286351&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-12-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Patent+1%2C286%2C351+filed+in+May%2C+1910%2C+and+issued+in+December%2C+1918&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpatimg2.uspto.gov%2F.piw%3FDocid%3D01286351%26homeurl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fpatft.uspto.gov%252Fnetacgi%252Fnph-Parser%253FSect1%253DPTO1%252526Sect2%253DHITOFF%252526d%253DPALL%252526p%253D1%252526u%253D%2525252Fnetahtml%2525252FPTO%2525252Fsrchnum.htm%252526r%253D1%252526f%253DG%252526l%253D50%252526s1%253D1286351.PN.%252526OS%253DPN%252F1286351%252526RS%253DPN%252F1286351%26PageNum%3D%26Rtype%3D%26SectionNum%3D%26idkey%3DNONE%26Input%3DView%2Bfirst%2Bpage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFColin_Hempstead,_William_E._Worthington2005" class="citation book cs1">Colin Hempstead, William E. Worthington (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA605"><i>Encyclopedia of 20th Century Technology</i></a>. Routledge. p. 605. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-464-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-464-1"><bdi>978-1-57958-464-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+20th+Century+Technology&rft.pages=605&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-464-1&rft.au=Colin+Hempstead%2C+William+E.+Worthington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0wkIlnNjDWcC%26pg%3DPA605&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_history.html">"The history of IBM electric typewriters"</a>. <i>IBM Archives</i>. 2003-01-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM+Archives&rft.atitle=The+history+of+IBM+electric+typewriters&rft.date=2003-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fibm%2Fhistory%2Fexhibits%2Fmodelb%2Fmodelb_history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1155510">"IBM Electromatic Typewriter"</a>. <i>National Museum of American History</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+American+History&rft.atitle=IBM+Electromatic+Typewriter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Fcollections%2Fsearch%2Fobject%2Fnmah_1155510&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2240.html">"IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01"</a>. 03.ibm.com. 23 January 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130526135454/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2240.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-05-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IBM+Electric+Typewriter+Model+01&rft.pub=03.ibm.com&rft.date=2003-01-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-03.ibm.com%2Fibm%2Fhistory%2Fexhibits%2Fvintage%2Fvintage_4506VV2240.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA83">"Changing the Type of Typewriter Made Easy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Mechanics" title="Popular Mechanics">Popular Mechanics</a></i>: 83. July 1931. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA83">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-06-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Changing+the+Type+of+Typewriter+Made+Easy&rft.pages=83&rft.date=1931-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4OIDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3D-PA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html">"IBM Typewriter Milestones"</a>. IBM Archives. 23 January 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170627172904/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IBM+Typewriter+Milestones&rft.pub=IBM+Archives&rft.date=2003-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww-03.ibm.com%2Fibm%2Fhistory%2Fexhibits%2Fmodelb%2Fmodelb_milestone.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/blogs/industries/selectric-typewriter-dancers/">"A different type of dance move"</a>. <i>Industrious</i>. 2020-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Industrious&rft.atitle=A+different+type+of+dance+move&rft.date=2020-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fblogs%2Findustries%2Fselectric-typewriter-dancers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ibm100-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ibm100_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibm100_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFIBM2012" class="citation web cs1">IBM (7 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/selectric/">"The Selectric Typewriter"</a>. <i>Icons of Progress</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Icons+of+Progress&rft.atitle=The+Selectric+Typewriter&rft.date=2012-03-07&rft.au=IBM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fibm%2Fhistory%2Fibm100%2Fus%2Fen%2Ficons%2Fselectric%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/selectric/">"The Selectric Typewriter"</a>. <i>IBM100</i>. 2012-03-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM100&rft.atitle=The+Selectric+Typewriter&rft.date=2012-03-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-03.ibm.com%2Fibm%2Fhistory%2Fibm100%2Fus%2Fen%2Ficons%2Fselectric%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2011" class="citation web cs1">Jackson, Nicholas (2011-07-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/07/ibm-reinvented-the-typewriter-with-the-selectric-50-years-ago/242624/">"IBM Reinvented the Typewriter With the Selectric 50 Years Ago"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=IBM+Reinvented+the+Typewriter+With+the+Selectric+50+Years+Ago&rft.date=2011-07-27&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2011%2F07%2Fibm-reinvented-the-typewriter-with-the-selectric-50-years-ago%2F242624%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEllen2005" class="citation book cs1">Ellen, David (2005). <i>Scientific Examination of Documents</i>. CRC Press. pp. 106–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-3925-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-3925-7"><bdi>978-0-8493-3925-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Examination+of+Documents&rft.pages=106-107&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-3925-7&rft.aulast=Ellen&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWershler-Henry2005" class="citation book cs1">Wershler-Henry, Darren (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254"><i>The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting</i></a></span>. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254">254</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4586-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4586-6"><bdi>978-0-8014-4586-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iron+Whim%3A+A+Fragmented+History+of+Typewriting&rft.place=Ithaca+and+London&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-4586-6&rft.aulast=Wershler-Henry&rft.aufirst=Darren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fironwhim00wers%2Fpage%2F254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:3-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_office2.html">"IBM Office Products Division highlights"</a>. <i>IBM Archives</i>. 2003-01-23. p. 2<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM+Archives&rft.atitle=IBM+Office+Products+Division+highlights&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2003-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fibm%2Fhistory%2Fexhibits%2Fmodelb%2Fmodelb_office2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://obsoletemedia.org/ibm-mtst/">"IBM MT/ST (1964 – late 1970s)"</a>. <i>Museum of Obsolete Media</i>. 2020-07-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museum+of+Obsolete+Media&rft.atitle=IBM+MT%2FST+%281964+%E2%80%93+late+1970s%29&rft.date=2020-07-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fobsoletemedia.org%2Fibm-mtst%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone2.html">"IBM typewriter milestones"</a>. <i>IBM Archives</i>. 2003-01-23. p. 2<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM+Archives&rft.atitle=IBM+typewriter+milestones&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2003-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fibm%2Fhistory%2Fexhibits%2Fmodelb%2Fmodelb_milestone2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.superiortelegram.com/news/quickprint-closes-after-72-years-presses-roll-elsewhere">"Quickprint closes after 72 years, presses roll elsewhere"</a>. <i>Superior Telegram</i>. 2012-01-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Superior+Telegram&rft.atitle=Quickprint+closes+after+72+years%2C+presses+roll+elsewhere&rft.date=2012-01-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.superiortelegram.com%2Fnews%2Fquickprint-closes-after-72-years-presses-roll-elsewhere&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.covingtoninnovations.com/selectric/">"IBM Selectric Typewriter Resource Page"</a>. <i>www.covingtoninnovations.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.covingtoninnovations.com&rft.atitle=IBM+Selectric+Typewriter+Resource+Page&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.covingtoninnovations.com%2Fselectric%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithcorona.com/history.html">"The History of Smith Corona | Since 1877 to Present"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170322134218/http://www.smithcorona.com/history.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-03-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Smith+Corona+%26%23124%3B+Since+1877+to+Present&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithcorona.com%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDana@mid2mod2011" class="citation web cs1">Dana@mid2mod (2011-08-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mid2mod.blogspot.com/2011/08/back-in-day-typing-erasers.html">"Mid2Mod: Back in the day: Typing erasers"</a>. <i>Mid2Mod</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mid2Mod&rft.atitle=Mid2Mod%3A+Back+in+the+day%3A+Typing+erasers&rft.date=2011-08-03&rft.au=Dana%40mid2mod&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmid2mod.blogspot.com%2F2011%2F08%2Fback-in-day-typing-erasers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mindmachine.co.uk/products/04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html#PWP-series">"Smith-Corona"</a>. Mindmachine.co.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130528120612/http://mindmachine.co.uk/products/04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html#PWP-series">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-05-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Smith-Corona&rft.pub=Mindmachine.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmindmachine.co.uk%2Fproducts%2F04_Manuf_Smith-Corona_01.html%23PWP-series&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2004" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Margery W. (2004-01-14). "Women Clerical Workers and the Typwriter: The Writing Machine". In Kramarae, Cheris (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203221938-5/women-clerical-workers-typewriter-writing-machine-margery-davies"><i>Technology and Women's Voices</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203221938">10.4324/9780203221938</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-22193-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-22193-8"><bdi>978-0-203-22193-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women+Clerical+Workers+and+the+Typwriter%3A+The+Writing+Machine&rft.btitle=Technology+and+Women%27s+Voices&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004-01-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203221938&rft.isbn=978-0-203-22193-8&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Margery+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fchapters%2Fedit%2F10.4324%2F9780203221938-5%2Fwomen-clerical-workers-typewriter-writing-machine-margery-davies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com/news/2011/06/15/5574540.htm">"Texas inmates have clear choice in typewriters"</a>. Fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com. 2011-06-15. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426011651/http://fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com/news/2011/06/15/5574540.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-04-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Texas+inmates+have+clear+choice+in+typewriters&rft.pub=Fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com&rft.date=2011-06-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com%2Fnews%2F2011%2F06%2F15%2F5574540.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCBC_News2011" class="citation news cs1">CBC News (April 26, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html">"World's last typewriter plant stops production"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429015137/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 29, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 27,</span> 2011</span>. <q>A previous version of this story did not clearly state that Godrej & Boyce appears to be the world's last maker of mechanical typewriters, which operate solely on human power. Numerous other manufacturers continue to make several types of electric typewriters.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=World%27s+last+typewriter+plant+stops+production&rft.date=2011-04-26&rft.au=CBC+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fstory%2F2011%2F04%2F26%2Ftypewriter-factory-closing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStanglin2011" class="citation web cs1">Stanglin, Douglas (2011-04-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1">"Wite Out? World's 'last typewriter factory' apparently isn't"</a>. USA Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120707111148/http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-07-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wite+Out%3F+World%27s+%27last+typewriter+factory%27+apparently+isn%27t&rft.pub=USA+Today&rft.date=2011-04-26&rft.aulast=Stanglin&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.usatoday.com%2Fcommunities%2Fondeadline%2Fpost%2F2011%2F04%2Fworlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRomenesko2011" class="citation web cs1">Romenesko, Jim (2011-04-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110904024830/http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/129512/reports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature/">"Reports of typewriter's death are premature"</a>. Poynter. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/romenesko/129512/reports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature/">the original</a> on 2011-09-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reports+of+typewriter%27s+death+are+premature&rft.pub=Poynter.&rft.date=2011-04-26&rft.aulast=Romenesko&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.poynter.org%2Flatest-news%2Fromenesko%2F129512%2Freports-of-typewriters-death-are-premature%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMemmott2011" class="citation web cs1">Memmott, Mark (2011-04-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/26/135740246/has-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really">"Has The Last Typewriter Factory Closed? Not Really"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120313204452/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/26/135740246/has-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-03-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Has+The+Last+Typewriter+Factory+Closed%3F+Not+Really&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2011-04-26&rft.aulast=Memmott&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fblogs%2Fthetwo-way%2F2011%2F04%2F26%2F135740246%2Fhas-the-last-typewriter-factory-closed-not-really&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-rohrlich-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rohrlich_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRohrlich2011" class="citation web cs1">Rohrlich, Justin (2011-04-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160224204135/http://www.minyanville.com/mvpremium/2011/04/25/contrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry/">"Contrary to Reports, Typewriter Industry "Far From Dead"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Minyanville</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minyanville.com/mvpremium/2011/04/25/contrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry">the original</a> on 2016-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Minyanville&rft.atitle=Contrary+to+Reports%2C+Typewriter+Industry+%22Far+From+Dead%22&rft.date=2011-04-25&rft.aulast=Rohrlich&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.minyanville.com%2Fmvpremium%2F2011%2F04%2F25%2Fcontrary-to-reports-typewriter-industry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20391538">"UK's 'last typewriter' produced"</a>. BBC. 2012-11-20. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131219184806/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20391538">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-12-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UK%27s+%27last+typewriter%27+produced&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2012-11-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-20391538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCornell2005" class="citation book cs1">Cornell, Svante (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_qQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA283"><i>Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135796693" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135796693"><bdi>978-1135796693</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Small+Nations+and+Great+Powers%3A+A+Study+of+Ethnopolitical+Conflict+in+the+Caucasus&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1135796693&rft.aulast=Cornell&rft.aufirst=Svante&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG_qQAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mundoestranho.abril.com.br/materia/ainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever">"Ainda se fabricam máquinas de escrever? (<i>Are typewriters still manufactured?</i>)"</a>. Mundoestranho.abril.com.br. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425025818/http://mundoestranho.abril.com.br/materia/ainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-04-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ainda+se+fabricam+m%C3%A1quinas+de+escrever%3F+%28Are+typewriters+still+manufactured%3F%29&rft.pub=Mundoestranho.abril.com.br&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmundoestranho.abril.com.br%2Fmateria%2Fainda-se-fabricam-maquinas-de-escrever&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-PoltBook-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PoltBook_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PoltBook_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPolt2015" class="citation book cs1">Polt, Richard (2015). <i>The typewriter revolution : a typist's companion for the 21st century</i>. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1581573114" title="Special:BookSources/978-1581573114"><bdi>978-1581573114</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+typewriter+revolution+%3A+a+typist%27s+companion+for+the+21st+century&rft.place=Woodstock%2C+VT&rft.pub=Countryman+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1581573114&rft.aulast=Polt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPeril2011" class="citation book cs1">Peril, Lynn (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1036875148"><i>Swimming in the steno pool : a retro guide to making it in the office</i></a>. W.W. Norton & Co. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036875148">1036875148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+steno+pool+%3A+a+retro+guide+to+making+it+in+the+office&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1036875148&rft.aulast=Peril&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1036875148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PeADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA128">"Rotating Typewriter Eraser"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>. November 1947. p. 128<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Rotating+Typewriter+Eraser&rft.pages=128&rft.date=1947-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPeADAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/may-2009/erasing-history">"Erasing History"</a>. <i>Perspectives on History | AHA</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+History+%7C+AHA&rft.atitle=Erasing+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historians.org%2Fpublications-and-directories%2Fperspectives-on-history%2Fmay-2009%2Ferasing-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://orwhatyouwill.wordpress.com/2010/02/18/escaping-the-bonds-of-erasable-bond/">"Escaping the Bonds of Erasable Bond"</a>. <i>Or What You Will</i>. 2010-02-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Or+What+You+Will&rft.atitle=Escaping+the+Bonds+of+Erasable+Bond&rft.date=2010-02-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Forwhatyouwill.wordpress.com%2F2010%2F02%2F18%2Fescaping-the-bonds-of-erasable-bond%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMejia2018" class="citation web cs1">Mejia, Zameena (2018-07-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/19/inventing-liquid-paper-got-a-secretary-fired-and-then-made-her-rich.html">"How inventing Liquid Paper got a secretary fired and then turned her into an exec worth $25 million"</a>. <i>CNBC</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNBC&rft.atitle=How+inventing+Liquid+Paper+got+a+secretary+fired+and+then+turned+her+into+an+exec+worth+%2425+million&rft.date=2018-07-23&rft.aulast=Mejia&rft.aufirst=Zameena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2018%2F07%2F19%2Finventing-liquid-paper-got-a-secretary-fired-and-then-made-her-rich.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-MimeoCorrect-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MimeoCorrect_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtocorrectamimeographstencil.htm">"How to correct a mimeograph stencil"</a>. <i>LinguaLinks Library</i>. SIL International. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121016144730/http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/howtocorrectamimeographstencil.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-10-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-05-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LinguaLinks+Library&rft.atitle=How+to+correct+a+mimeograph+stencil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.org%2Flingualinks%2Fliteracy%2Fimplementaliteracyprogram%2Fhowtocorrectamimeographstencil.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLiebowitzStephen_E._Margolis1990" class="citation journal cs1">Liebowitz, S. J.; Stephen E. Margolis (1990). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wwwpub.utdallas.edu/~liebowit/keys1.html">"The Fable of the Keys"</a></span>. <i>Journal of Law & Economics</i>. <b>XXXIII</b> (April 1990). The University of Chicago: 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F467198">10.1086/467198</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14262869">14262869</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080703204106/http://wwwpub.utdallas.edu/%7Eliebowit/keys1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-18</span></span>. <q>This article examines the history, economics, and ergonomics of the typewriter keyboard. We show that David's version of the history of the market's rejection of Dvorak does not report the true history, and we present evidence that the continued use of Qwerty is efficient given the current understanding of keyboard design.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+%26+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Fable+of+the+Keys&rft.volume=XXXIII&rft.issue=April+1990&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F467198&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14262869%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Liebowitz&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rft.au=Stephen+E.+Margolis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwwwpub.utdallas.edu%2F~liebowit%2Fkeys1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis2015" class="citation journal cs1">Francis, Darryl (2015-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00437980&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA435533172&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs">"AZERTY & QWERTZ keyboards"</a>. <i>Word Ways</i>. <b>48</b> (4): 292–295.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Word+Ways&rft.atitle=AZERTY+%26+QWERTZ+keyboards&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=292-295&rft.date=2015-11-01&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Darryl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DLitRC%26sw%3Dw%26issn%3D00437980%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CA435533172%26sid%3DgoogleScholar%26linkaccess%3Dabs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKroemer2014" class="citation cs2">Kroemer, Karl H.E (2014), "Keyboards and keying an annotated bibliography of the literature from 1878 to 1999", <i>Universal Access in the Information Society</i>, <b>1</b> (2): 99–160, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs102090100012">10.1007/s102090100012</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207064170">207064170</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Universal+Access+in+the+Information+Society&rft.atitle=Keyboards+and+keying+an+annotated+bibliography+of+the+literature+from+1878+to+1999&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-160&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs102090100012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207064170%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kroemer&rft.aufirst=Karl+H.E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStamp" class="citation web cs1">Stamp, Jimmy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/fact-of-fiction-the-legend-of-the-qwerty-keyboard-49863249/">"Fact of Fiction? The Legend of the QWERTY Keyboard"</a>. <i>Smithsonian</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Fact+of+Fiction%3F+The+Legend+of+the+QWERTY+Keyboard&rft.aulast=Stamp&rft.aufirst=Jimmy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Farts-culture%2Ffact-of-fiction-the-legend-of-the-qwerty-keyboard-49863249%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-David,_P.A._1986-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-David,_P.A._1986_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David, P. A. (1986). "Understanding the Economics of QWERTY: the Necessity of History". In Parker, William N., <i>Economic History and the Modern Economist</i>. Basil Blackwell, New York and Oxford.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa_A0562/">"Instructions for Using the Blickensderfer Typewriter"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140221053745/http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa_A0562/">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-02-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Instructions+for+Using+the+Blickensderfer+Typewriter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.duke.edu%2Fdigitalcollections%2Feaa_A0562%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130131061059/http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI%20INCITS%20154-1988%20%28R1999%29">ANSI INCITS 154-1988 (R1999) Office Machines and Supplies – Alphanumeric Machines – Keyboard Arrangement (formerly ANSI X3.154-1988 (R1999))</a> (retrieved 2012-07-04)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPurcell1974" class="citation journal cs1">Purcell, Edward T. (1974). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/306437">"Computer-Controlled Drills for First-Year Russian"</a></span>. <i>The Slavic and East European Journal</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 56–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F306437">10.2307/306437</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0037-6752">0037-6752</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/306437">306437</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavic+and+East+European+Journal&rft.atitle=Computer-Controlled+Drills+for+First-Year+Russian&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=56-68&rft.date=1974&rft.issn=0037-6752&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F306437%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F306437&rft.aulast=Purcell&rft.aufirst=Edward+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F306437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMakinen2016" class="citation web cs1">Makinen, Julie (2016-09-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-chinese-typewriter-snap-story.html">"Before the computer, there was something almost as complex: the Chinese typewriter"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Before+the+computer%2C+there+was+something+almost+as+complex%3A+the+Chinese+typewriter&rft.date=2016-09-03&rft.aulast=Makinen&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fla-fg-chinese-typewriter-snap-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBringhurst2004" class="citation book cs1">Bringhurst, Robert (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780881791327/page/80/mode/2up"><i>The elements of typographic style</i></a> (third ed.). Hartley & Marks, Publishers. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88179-206-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88179-206-5"><bdi>978-0-88179-206-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2020</span>. <q>In typescript, a double hyphen (--) is often used for a long dash. Double hyphens in a typeset document are a sure sign that the type was set by a typist, not a typographer. A typographer will use an em dash, three-quarter em, or en dash, depending on context or personal style. The em dash is the nineteenth-century standard, still prescribed in many editorial style books, but the em dash is too long for use with the best text faces. Like the oversized space between sentences, it belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+elements+of+typographic+style&rft.pages=80&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Hartley+%26+Marks%2C+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-88179-206-5&rft.aulast=Bringhurst&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780881791327%2Fpage%2F80%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFUpper_and_Lower_Case_Magazine" class="citation web cs1">Upper and Lower Case Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itcfonts.com/Ulc/4111/TopTenTypeCrimes.htm">"U&lc Online Issue 41.1.1: Top Ten Type Crimes"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U%26lc+Online+Issue+41.1.1%3A+Top+Ten+Type+Crimes&rft.au=Upper+and+Lower+Case+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itcfonts.com%2FUlc%2F4111%2FTopTenTypeCrimes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="Wil03" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Robin (2003). <i>The Mac is not a typewriter: A style manual for creating professional-level type on your Macintosh</i> (2nd ed.). Berkeley, California: Peachpit Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-78263-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-78263-9"><bdi>978-0-201-78263-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mac+is+not+a+typewriter%3A+A+style+manual+for+creating+professional-level+type+on+your+Macintosh&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Peachpit+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-201-78263-9&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFelici2003" class="citation book cs1">Felici, James (2003). <i>The Complete Manual of Typography: A Guide to Setting Perfect Type</i>. Berkeley, California: Peachpit Press. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-12730-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-12730-3"><bdi>978-0-321-12730-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Manual+of+Typography%3A+A+Guide+to+Setting+Perfect+Type&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Peachpit+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-321-12730-3&rft.aulast=Felici&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="Ros09" class="citation book cs1">Rosendorf, Theodore (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/typographicdeskr0000rose"><i>The Typographic Desk Reference</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New Castle, Delaware. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58456-231-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58456-231-3"><bdi>978-1-58456-231-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Typographic+Desk+Reference&rft.place=New+Castle%2C+Delaware&rft.edition=1st&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-58456-231-3&rft.aulast=Rosendorf&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftypographicdeskr0000rose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span>;
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFUpper_and_Lower_Case_Magazine" class="citation web cs1">Upper and Lower Case Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itcfonts.com/Ulc/4111/TopTenTypeCrimes.htm">"U&lc Online Issue 41.1.1: Top Ten Type Crimes"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U%26lc+Online+Issue+41.1.1%3A+Top+Ten+Type+Crimes&rft.au=Upper+and+Lower+Case+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itcfonts.com%2FUlc%2F4111%2FTopTenTypeCrimes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="Str11" class="citation book cs1">Strizver, Ilene (2010). <i>Type Rules: The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography</i> (3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-54251-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-54251-4"><bdi>978-0-470-54251-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Type+Rules%3A+The+Designer%27s+Guide+to+Professional+Typography&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=199&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-470-54251-4&rft.aulast=Strizver&rft.aufirst=Ilene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span>. Strizver states that "When available, true primes should be used for measurements, but typewriter quotes (not smart quotes) have become the accepted practice in digital typography."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRegents_of_the_University_of_Minnesota2007" class="citation web cs1">Regents of the University of Minnesota (18 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090117122230/http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/style/copyprep.html">"University of Minnesota Style Manual"</a>. <i>University of Minnesota</i>. Regents of the University of Minnesota. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/style/copyprep.html#Anchor-Copy-47857">the original</a> on January 17, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Minnesota&rft.atitle=University+of+Minnesota+Style+Manual&rft.date=2007-07-18&rft.au=Regents+of+the+University+of+Minnesota&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.umn.edu%2Furelate%2Fstyle%2Fcopyprep.html%23Anchor-Copy-47857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span> This topic is discussed under "Creating Professional-looking Text."; Williams 2003. pps. 31, 33. Another example of the limitation of the typewriter in regard to underlining, was the necessity to underline the titles of books and stand-alone works in Bibliographies—works that would otherwise have been italicized, if that capability existed on the typewriter.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTruss2004" class="citation book cs1">Truss, Lynn (2004). <i>Eats, Shoot & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation</i>. New York: Gotham Books. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59240-087-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59240-087-4"><bdi>978-1-59240-087-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eats%2C+Shoot+%26+Leaves%3A+The+Zero+Tolerance+Approach+to+Punctuation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Gotham+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-59240-087-4&rft.aulast=Truss&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKelechava2016" class="citation web cs1">Kelechava, Brad (2016-05-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.ansi.org/2016/05/invention-of-backspace-key/">"Invention of the Backspace Key"</a>. <i>The ANSI Blog</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+ANSI+Blog&rft.atitle=Invention+of+the+Backspace+Key&rft.date=2016-05-17&rft.aulast=Kelechava&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.ansi.org%2F2016%2F05%2Finvention-of-backspace-key%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:4-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://danielmiessler.com/study/crlf/">"The Carriage Return and Line Feed Characters"</a>. <i>Daniel Miessler</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daniel+Miessler&rft.atitle=The+Carriage+Return+and+Line+Feed+Characters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdanielmiessler.com%2Fstudy%2Fcrlf%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStoll2020" class="citation web cs1">Stoll, Cliff (April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.physics.wisc.edu/ingersollmuseum/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2020/04/scientificamerican0506-80-WhenSlideRulesRuled.pdf">"When Slide Rules Ruled"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ingersoll Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ingersoll+Museum&rft.atitle=When+Slide+Rules+Ruled&rft.date=2020-04&rft.aulast=Stoll&rft.aufirst=Cliff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.physics.wisc.edu%2Fingersollmuseum%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F10%2F2020%2F04%2Fscientificamerican0506-80-WhenSlideRulesRuled.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/may/24/typewriter-versus-wordprocessor-technological-innovation">"John Naughton: Log on to an old-time typewriter; now try to cut and paste"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i>. 2009-05-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=John+Naughton%3A+Log+on+to+an+old-time+typewriter%3B+now+try+to+cut+and+paste&rft.date=2009-05-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmedia%2F2009%2Fmay%2F24%2Ftypewriter-versus-wordprocessor-technological-innovation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xahlee.info/kbd/space-cadet_design.html">"Keyboard Design for the LISP Machine"</a>. <i>Xah Keyboard Guide</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Xah+Keyboard+Guide&rft.atitle=Keyboard+Design+for+the+LISP+Machine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxahlee.info%2Fkbd%2Fspace-cadet_design.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://typographyforlawyers.com/tabs-and-tab-stops.html">"Tabs and tab stops"</a>. <i>Typography for Lawyers</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Typography+for+Lawyers&rft.atitle=Tabs+and+tab+stops&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftypographyforlawyers.com%2Ftabs-and-tab-stops.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/t/tty.htm">"What is TTY?"</a>. <i>Computer Hope</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+Hope&rft.atitle=What+is+TTY%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhope.com%2Fjargon%2Ft%2Ftty.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121214222817/http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00451/typewriter.htm">"1876 Sholes, Gidden, Soule invention"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00451/typewriter.htm">the original</a> on 14 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1876+Sholes%2C+Gidden%2C+Soule+invention&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.thinkquest.org%2F04oct%2F00451%2Ftypewriter.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyer, Kate, and Kim England. "Gender, Work and Technology in the Information Workplace: From Typewriters to ATMs." Social & Cultural Geography 9.3 (2008): 241–256. Web.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waller, Robert A. "Women and the Typewriter During the First Fifty Years, 1873–1923". Studies in Popular Culture 9.1 (1986): 39–50. Web.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1917-2/organs-of-the-press/organs-of-the-press-texts/decree-on-the-press/">"Decree on the Press"</a>. <i>Seventeen Moments in Soviet History</i>. 2015-08-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Seventeen+Moments+in+Soviet+History&rft.atitle=Decree+on+the+Press&rft.date=2015-08-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsoviethistory.msu.edu%2F1917-2%2Forgans-of-the-press%2Forgans-of-the-press-texts%2Fdecree-on-the-press%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kula.uvic.ca/"><i>KULA: knowledge creation, dissemination, and preservation studies</i></a>. 2017. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1126556820">1126556820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=KULA%3A+knowledge+creation%2C+dissemination%2C+and+preservation+studies.&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1126556820&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkula.uvic.ca%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBolintineanuThirugnanasampanthan2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bolintineanu, Alexandra; Thirugnanasampanthan, Jaya (2018-11-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1d9a/c7bd1eb4b8a3071b4b9dd0ce53996020cecb.pdf">"The Typewriter Under the Bed: Introducing Digital Humanities through Banned Books and Endangered Knowledge"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>KULA: Knowledge Creation, Dissemination, and Preservation Studies</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5334%2Fkula.30">10.5334/kula.30</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2398-4112">2398-4112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=KULA%3A+Knowledge+Creation%2C+Dissemination%2C+and+Preservation+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Typewriter+Under+the+Bed%3A+Introducing+Digital+Humanities+through+Banned+Books+and+Endangered+Knowledge&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22&rft.date=2018-11-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5334%2Fkula.30&rft.issn=2398-4112&rft.aulast=Bolintineanu&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft.au=Thirugnanasampanthan%2C+Jaya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F1d9a%2Fc7bd1eb4b8a3071b4b9dd0ce53996020cecb.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAleeva2017" class="citation web cs1">Aleeva, Ekaterina (2017-07-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rbth.com/arts/literature/2017/07/10/samizdat_797635">"Samizdat: How did people in the Soviet Union circumvent state censorship"</a>. <i>www.rbth.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rbth.com&rft.atitle=Samizdat%3A+How+did+people+in+the+Soviet+Union+circumvent+state+censorship&rft.date=2017-07-10&rft.aulast=Aleeva&rft.aufirst=Ekaterina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbth.com%2Farts%2Fliterature%2F2017%2F07%2F10%2Fsamizdat_797635&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090201140007/http://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/firsttw.html">"The First Typewriter"</a>. Rehr, Darryl. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/firsttw.html">the original</a> on 2009-02-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-02-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+First+Typewriter&rft.pub=Rehr%2C+Darryl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.earthlink.net%2F~dcrehr%2Ffirsttw.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWershler-Henry2007" class="citation book cs1">Wershler-Henry, Darren Sean (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=38cd7wS1-RsC&q=burroughs"><i>The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting</i></a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4586-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4586-6"><bdi>978-0-8014-4586-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iron+Whim%3A+A+Fragmented+History+of+Typewriting&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-4586-6&rft.aulast=Wershler-Henry&rft.aufirst=Darren+Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D38cd7wS1-RsC%26q%3Dburroughs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carpenter, Humphrey (1978). <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien:_A_Biography" title="J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography">J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography</a>, Unwin Paperbacks p.207. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0%2B04%2B928039%2B2" title="Special:BookSources/0+04+928039+2">0 04 928039 2</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LLpNKo09Xk">"JACK KEROUAC on THE STEVE ALLEN SHOW with Steve Allen 1959"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=JACK+KEROUAC+on+THE+STEVE+ALLEN+SHOW+with+Steve+Allen+1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D3LLpNKo09Xk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071021032407/http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2006_10_01_archive.asp">"Blog archive"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2006_10_01_archive.asp">the original</a> on 2007-10-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blog+archive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.williamgibsonbooks.com%2Fblog%2F2006_10_01_archive.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://harlanellison.com/interview.htm">"Harlan Ellison Webderland: Interview"</a>. Harlanellison.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308110553/http://www.harlanellison.com/interview.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-03-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harlan+Ellison+Webderland%3A+Interview&rft.pub=Harlanellison.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fharlanellison.com%2Finterview.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2009" class="citation news cs1">Kennedy, Randy (2009-12-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/04/cormac-mccarthys-typewriter-brings-254500-at-auction/">"Cormac McCarthy's Typewriter Brings $254,500 at Auction – ArtsBeat Blog – NYTimes.com"</a>. Artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110528153549/http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/04/cormac-mccarthys-typewriter-brings-254500-at-auction/">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-05-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Cormac+McCarthy%27s+Typewriter+Brings+%24254%2C500+at+Auction+%E2%80%93+ArtsBeat+Blog+%E2%80%93+NYTimes.com&rft.date=2009-12-04&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fartsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F12%2F04%2Fcormac-mccarthys-typewriter-brings-254500-at-auction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPatricia_Cohen2009" class="citation news cs1">Patricia Cohen (November 30, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/books/01typewriter.html">"No Country for Old Typewriters: A Well-Used One Heads to Auction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140904124940/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/books/01typewriter.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 4, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=No+Country+for+Old+Typewriters%3A+A+Well-Used+One+Heads+to+Auction&rft.date=2009-11-30&rft.au=Patricia+Cohen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F12%2F01%2Fbooks%2F01typewriter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Joiner-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Joiner_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joiner_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joiner_149-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJoiner2013" class="citation web cs1">Joiner, James (11 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/09/the-hidden-world-of-the-typewriter/279523/">"The Hidden World of the Typewriter"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Hidden+World+of+the+Typewriter&rft.date=2013-09-11&rft.aulast=Joiner&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2013%2F09%2Fthe-hidden-world-of-the-typewriter%2F279523%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7427237.stm">"Why typewriters beat computers"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 2008-05-30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170804050059/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7427237.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-08-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Why+typewriters+beat+computers&rft.date=2008-05-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2F7427237.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NY_Times_typewriter-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NY_Times_typewriter_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHanks2013" class="citation news cs1">Hanks, Tom (3 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/04/opinion/sunday/i-am-tom-i-like-to-type-hear-that.html">"I Am TOM. I Like to TYPE. Hear That?"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=I+Am+TOM.+I+Like+to+TYPE.+Hear+That%3F&rft.date=2013-08-03&rft.aulast=Hanks&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F08%2F04%2Fopinion%2Fsunday%2Fi-am-tom-i-like-to-type-hear-that.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Patkin-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Patkin_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPatkin2023" class="citation web cs1">Patkin, Abby (April 5, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boston.com/news/off-beat/2023/04/05/tom-hanks-sent-typewriter-arlington-shop/">"Tom Hanks just sent a typewriter to an Arlington shop. Here's why"</a>. <i>www.boston.com</i>. Boston Globe Media Partners LLC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-04-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.boston.com&rft.atitle=Tom+Hanks+just+sent+a+typewriter+to+an+Arlington+shop.+Here%27s+why.&rft.date=2023-04-05&rft.aulast=Patkin&rft.aufirst=Abby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Foff-beat%2F2023%2F04%2F05%2Ftom-hanks-sent-typewriter-arlington-shop%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/894/the-art-of-biography-no-2-david-mccullough">"The Art of Biography No. 2"</a>. Vol. Fall 1999, no. 152. 1999. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2037">0031-2037</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Art+of+Biography+No.+2&rft.volume=Fall+1999&rft.issue=152&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=0031-2037&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theparisreview.org%2Finterviews%2F894%2Fthe-art-of-biography-no-2-david-mccullough&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHelfand2021" class="citation news cs1">Helfand, Zach (2021-10-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/11/01/why-robert-caro-now-has-only-ten-typewriters">"Why Robert Caro Now Has Only Ten Typewriters"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-792X">0028-792X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=Why+Robert+Caro+Now+Has+Only+Ten+Typewriters&rft.date=2021-10-22&rft.issn=0028-792X&rft.aulast=Helfand&rft.aufirst=Zach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2021%2F11%2F01%2Fwhy-robert-caro-now-has-only-ten-typewriters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://conquest.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/d/db/IMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_(orch._score).pdf">"IMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_(orch._score).pdf"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Music Score Library Project</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Music+Score+Library+Project&rft.atitle=IMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_%28orch._score%29.pdf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconquest.imslp.info%2Ffiles%2Fimglnks%2Fusimg%2Fd%2Fdb%2FIMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_%28orch._score%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NPR-BTO-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NPR-BTO_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHurley" class="citation news cs1">Hurley, Sean. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95578403">"Boston Orchestra Makes Typewriters Sing"</a>. <i>NPR.org</i>. National Public Radio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308223426/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95578403">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-03-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR.org&rft.atitle=Boston+Orchestra+Makes+Typewriters+Sing&rft.aulast=Hurley&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D95578403&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-BTO-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BTO_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bostontypewriterorchestra.com/">"The Boston Typewriter Orchestra"</a>. Wordpress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120404062611/http://www.bostontypewriterorchestra.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-04-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Boston+Typewriter+Orchestra&rft.pub=Wordpress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bostontypewriterorchestra.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/BecomingTypewriter">"Becoming Typewriter : Ryu Hankil : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive"</a>. 2001-03-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Becoming+Typewriter+%3A+Ryu+Hankil+%3A+Free+Download+%26+Streaming+%3A+Internet+Archive&rft.date=2001-03-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FBecomingTypewriter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDehn2013" class="citation news cs1">Dehn, Georgia (27 May 2013). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10076969/Deborah-Francois-interview-for-Populaire-Acting-felt-like-a-fantasy.html">"Déborah François interview for Populaire: 'Acting felt like a fantasy'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10076969/Deborah-Francois-interview-for-Populaire-Acting-felt-like-a-fantasy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=D%C3%A9borah+Fran%C3%A7ois+interview+for+Populaire%3A+%27Acting+felt+like+a+fantasy%27&rft.date=2013-05-27&rft.aulast=Dehn&rft.aufirst=Georgia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fculture%2Ffilm%2Fstarsandstories%2F10076969%2FDeborah-Francois-interview-for-Populaire-Acting-felt-like-a-fantasy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Kelly-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_160-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2006" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Mary W. (2006). "Typewriters". <i>Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents, Second Edition (Forensic and Police Science Series)</i> (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. 177–189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2044-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2044-6"><bdi>978-0-8493-2044-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Typewriters&rft.btitle=Scientific+Examination+of+Questioned+Documents%2C+Second+Edition+%28Forensic+and+Police+Science+Series%29&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pages=177-189&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-2044-6&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Mary+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haas, Josef. (1972), "ATLAS der Schreibmaschinenschrift, PICA".</span>
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<li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haas, Josef and Bernhard Haas. (1985), "ATLAS der Schreibmaschinenschrift, Non-PICA".</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bouffard, P.D. (1992), A PC-Based Typewriter Typestyle Classification System Standard, presented at the American Academy of Forensic Sciences meeting, New Orleans, LA.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHodgins1963" class="citation journal cs1">Hodgins, Cpl. J.H. (January 1963). "A Punchcard System for Identification of Typescript". <i>Journal of Forensic Sciences</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 68–81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Forensic+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+Punchcard+System+for+Identification+of+Typescript&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=68-81&rft.date=1963-01&rft.aulast=Hodgins&rft.aufirst=Cpl.+J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Interpol (1969) "System for Identification of Typewriter Makes Using the Card Index", ICPO-Interpol</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-crown-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crown_166-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crown_166-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCrown1967" class="citation journal cs1">Crown, David A. (March 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5434&context=jclc">"Landmarks in Typewriting Identification"</a>. <i>Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science</i>. <b>58</b> (1): 105–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1141378">10.2307/1141378</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1141378">1141378</a>. <q>The earliest known reference to the identification potential of typewriting, curiously enough, appears in 'A Case of Identity', a Sherlock Holmes story by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Criminal+Law%2C+Criminology%2C+and+Police+Science&rft.atitle=Landmarks+in+Typewriting+Identification&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=105-111&rft.date=1967-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1141378&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1141378%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Crown&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D5434%26context%3Djclc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHagan1894" class="citation book cs1">Hagan, William E. (1894). "Chapter VIII". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/disputedhandwrit00haga"><i>Disputed Handwriting</i></a>. Albany, NY: Banks & Brothers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/disputedhandwrit00haga/page/203">203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+VIII&rft.btitle=Disputed+Handwriting&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Banks+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Hagan&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdisputedhandwrit00haga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOsborn1908" class="citation cs2">Osborn, Albert S. (1908), <i>Typewriting as Evidence</i>, Rochester, NY: The Genesee Press, p. 23</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Typewriting+as+Evidence&rft.place=Rochester%2C+NY&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=The+Genesee+Press&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Osborn&rft.aufirst=Albert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOsborn1973" class="citation book cs1">Osborn, Albert S. (1973) [1929]. "Questioned Typewriting". <i>Questioned Documents</i> (2nd ed.). Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith. p. 1042. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87585-207-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87585-207-2"><bdi>978-0-87585-207-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Questioned+Typewriting&rft.btitle=Questioned+Documents&rft.place=Montclair%2C+NJ&rft.pages=1042&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Patterson+Smith&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-87585-207-2&rft.aulast=Osborn&rft.aufirst=Albert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-astm_TW-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-astm_TW_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astm.org/">ASTM International</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060331053643/http://www.astm.org/">Archived</a> 2006-03-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, These guides are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences and the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E30.02 on Questioned Documents. Copies of ASTM Standards can be obtained directly from <a href="/wiki/ASTM_International" title="ASTM International">ASTM International</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBetea2009" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Betea, Lavinia (February 13, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904043133/http://jurnalul.ro/scinteia/special/la-militie-cu-masina-de-scris-319045.html">"La Miliţie cu maşina de scris"</a> (in Romanian). jurnalul.ro. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jurnalul.ro/scinteia/special/la-militie-cu-masina-de-scris-319045.html">the original</a> on September 4, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+Mili%C5%A3ie+cu+ma%C5%9Fina+de+scris&rft.pub=jurnalul.ro&rft.date=2009-02-13&rft.aulast=Betea&rft.aufirst=Lavinia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjurnalul.ro%2Fscinteia%2Fspecial%2Fla-militie-cu-masina-de-scris-319045.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"News & Notes: The Great Rumanian Typewriter Decree". <i><a href="/wiki/Index_on_Censorship" title="Index on Censorship">Index on Censorship</a></i>. <b>15</b> (1): 2–3. 1986. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03064228608534006">10.1080/03064228608534006</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220951010">220951010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Index+on+Censorship&rft.atitle=News+%26+Notes%3A+The+Great+Rumanian+Typewriter+Decree&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-3&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03064228608534006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220951010%23id-name%3DS2CID&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ways-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ways_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWays2021" class="citation web cs1">Ways, Mark (October 28, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.typinglounge.com/typewriter-museums">"10 Typewriter Museums You Should Visit"</a>. <i>Typing Lounge</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Typing+Lounge&rft.atitle=10+Typewriter+Museums+You+Should+Visit&rft.date=2021-10-28&rft.aulast=Ways&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.typinglounge.com%2Ftypewriter-museums&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.schreibmaschinenmuseum.com/en/">"Schreib Maschinen Museum"</a>. <i>Typewritermuseum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Typewritermuseum&rft.atitle=Schreib+Maschinen+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.schreibmaschinenmuseum.com%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.museodellamacchinadascrivere.org">"Museo della Macchina da Scrivere"</a>. <i>Museo della macchina da scrivere</i> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museo+della+macchina+da+scrivere&rft.atitle=Museo+della+Macchina+da+Scrivere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.museodellamacchinadascrivere.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perrier-sa.ch/musee/">"Musée de la Machine à Ecrire"</a>. <i>Musée de la machine à écrire</i> (in French). Perrier Machines de Bureau, Lausanne<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mus%C3%A9e+de+la+machine+%C3%A0+%C3%A9crire&rft.atitle=Mus%C3%A9e+de+la+Machine+%C3%A0+Ecrire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perrier-sa.ch%2Fmusee%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRobert" class="citation web cs1">Robert, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.typewritermuseum.org/index.html">"The Virtual Typewriter Museum"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Virtual+Typewriter+Museum&rft.aulast=Robert&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.typewritermuseum.org%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mrmartinweb.com/type.htm">"Typewriter Museum"</a>. <i>www.mrmartinweb.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mrmartinweb.com&rft.atitle=Typewriter+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mrmartinweb.com%2Ftype.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Patents">Patents</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US79265">US79265</a></span> – Improvement in Type-Writing Machines (the patent that laid the basis for the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer)</li>
<li><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US349026">US349026</a></span> – typewriter ribbon, by George K. Anderson of Memphis, Tennessee.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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</h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1097763485">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style><table class="box-ISBN plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg/40px-Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg/60px-Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg/80px-Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>lacks <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBNs</a> for the books listed</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit">add the ISBNs</a> or run the <a class="external text" href="http://tools.wmflabs.org/citations/process_page.php?edit=template&slow=1&user=Biblio+template+user&page=Typewriter">citation bot</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<ul><li>Adler, M.H. (1973). <i>The Writing Machine: A History of the Typewriter</i>. Allen and Unwin.</li>
<li>Beeching, Wilfred A. (1974). <i>Century of the Typewriter</i>. St. Martin's Press. pp. 276 Beeching was the Director of the British Typewriter Museum.</li>
<li>Casillo, Anthony (2017), <i>Typewriters: Iconic Machines from the Golden Age of Mechanical Writing</i>. Chronical Books. pp. 208 Foreword by Tom Hanks.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPolt2015" class="citation book cs1">Polt, Richard (2015). <i>The typewriter revolution : a typist's companion for the 21st century</i>. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1581573114" title="Special:BookSources/978-1581573114"><bdi>978-1581573114</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+typewriter+revolution+%3A+a+typist%27s+companion+for+the+21st+century&rft.place=Woodstock%2C+VT&rft.pub=Countryman+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1581573114&rft.aulast=Polt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWichary2023" class="citation book cs1">Wichary, Marcin (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shifthappens.site/"><i>Shift Happens</i></a>. Lewiston, Maine: Penmor.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shift+Happens&rft.place=Lewiston%2C+Maine&rft.pub=Penmor&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Wichary&rft.aufirst=Marcin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshifthappens.site%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/typewriter" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/typewriter">typewriter</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Typewriter" class="extiw" title="commons:Typewriter"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Typewriter</span></a>.</div></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eclectisaurus.com/tmtypewritermuseum.html">The Eclectisaurus online Museum of Typewriters by manufacturers from Adler to Voss.</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y3HK9yTqYo"><span class="plainlinks">Most Definitely My Type</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a> Video showcasing historical typewriters, with soundtrack by <a href="/wiki/Boston_Typewriter_Orchestra" title="Boston Typewriter Orchestra">Boston Typewriter Orchestra</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maquinasantigasdeescrever.com.br/historia.html">Oliveira Typewriter (em português)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090126014136/http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/etc.html">Early Typewriter Collectors' Association</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/">The Classic Typewriter Page</a></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Revival">Revival</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qctimes.com/news/opinion/editorial/columnists/bill-wundram/article_03dd1536-4423-11de-a7be-001cc4c002e0.html">Ding, click clack – typewriter is back</a> –<i><a href="/wiki/Quad-City_Times" title="Quad-City Times">Quad-City Times</a></i>, May 18, 2009</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2011/12/19/Typewriters-experience-a-comeback/UPI-30661324327372/">Typewriters experience a comeback</a> – <a href="/wiki/United_Press_International" title="United Press International">United Press International</a>, Dec. 19, 2011</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://typewritermovie.com/">Documentary Film – The Typewriter (In the 21st Century)</a> – 2012</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/10173645/Kremlin-returns-to-typewriters-to-avoid-computer-leaks.html">Kremlin returns to typewriters to avoid computer leaks</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>, July 11, 2013</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/15/germany-typewriters-espionage-nsa-spying-surveillance">Germany 'may revert to typewriters' to counter hi-tech espionage</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>, July 15, 2014</li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Typewriter" title="Template talk:Typewriter"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Typewriter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Typewriter"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Typewriters" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Typewriters</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manufacturers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brother_Industries" title="Brother Industries">Brother</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commodore_International" title="Commodore International">Commodore International</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons" title="E. Remington and Sons">E. Remington and Sons</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Typewriter_Company" title="Imperial Typewriter Company">Imperial Typewriter Company</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Typewriter_Company" title="Oliver Typewriter Company">Oliver Typewriter Company</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Typewriter_Company" title="Royal Typewriter Company">Royal Typewriter Company</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Seiko_Ltd." title="Silver Seiko Ltd.">Silver Seiko</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Corona" title="Smith Corona">Smith Corona</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Underwood_Typewriter_Company" title="Underwood Typewriter Company">Underwood Typewriter Company</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xerox" title="Xerox">Xerox</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blickensderfer_typewriter" title="Blickensderfer typewriter">Blickensderfer typewriter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_Recall_Diamond" title="Data Recall Diamond">Data Recall Diamond</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hammond_Typewriter" title="Hammond Typewriter">Hammond Typewriter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric" title="IBM Selectric">IBM Selectric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Valentine" title="Olivetti Valentine">Olivetti Valentine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermes_3000" title="Hermes 3000">Hermes 3000</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prominent figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Stephen_Crandall" title="Lucien Stephen Crandall">Lucien Stephen Crandall</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Haven_Hall" title="Frank Haven Hall">Frank Haven Hall</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Densmore" title="James Densmore">James Densmore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Glidden" title="Carlos Glidden">Carlos Glidden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rasmus_Malling-Hansen" title="Rasmus Malling-Hansen">Rasmus Malling-Hansen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Mill" title="Henry Mill">Henry Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Jonathon_Pratt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Jonathon Pratt (page does not exist)">John Jonathon Pratt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Seamans" title="Clarence Seamans">Clarence Seamans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Latham_Sholes" title="Christopher Latham Sholes">Christopher Sholes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Fields_Smathers" title="James Fields Smathers">James Fields Smathers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Cornelius_Smith" title="Lyman Cornelius Smith">Lyman Cornelius Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._Soul%C3%A9" title="Samuel W. Soulé">Samuel W. Soulé</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kyota_Sugimoto" title="Kyota Sugimoto">Kyota Sugimoto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ettore_Sottsass" title="Ettore Sottsass">Ettore Sottsass</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keyboard_layout" title="Keyboard layout">Keyboard layout</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/AZERTY" title="AZERTY">AZERTY</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dvorak_keyboard_layout" title="Dvorak keyboard layout">Dvorak</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/QWERTZ" title="QWERTZ">QWERTZ</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Platen" title="Platen">Platen</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accessories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_paper" title="Carbon paper">Carbon paper</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">Correction fluid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Erasing_shield" title="Erasing shield">Erasing shield</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ink_ribbon" title="Ink ribbon">Ink ribbon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Typewriter_desk" title="Typewriter desk">Typewriter desk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Typewriter_eraser" class="mw-redirect" title="Typewriter eraser">Typewriter eraser</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copy_typist" title="Copy typist">Copy typist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Audio_typist" title="Audio typist">Audio typist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_entry_clerk" title="Data entry clerk">Data entry clerk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secretary" title="Secretary">Secretary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speech-to-text_reporter" title="Speech-to-text reporter">Speech-to-text reporter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stenographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Stenographer">Stenographer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">Typesetting</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and<br /> health aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Typewriter_Orchestra" title="Boston Typewriter Orchestra">Boston Typewriter Orchestra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Etaoin_shrdlu" title="Etaoin shrdlu">Etaoin shrdlu</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mavis_Beacon_Teaches_Typing" title="Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing">Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Repetitive_strain_injury" title="Repetitive strain injury">Repetitive strain injury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Speed_typing_contest" title="Speed typing contest">Speed typing contest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog" title="The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog">The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Touch_typing" title="Touch typing">Touch typing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46335#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46335#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46335#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Machines à écrire"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119384502">France</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Machines à écrire"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119384502">BnF data</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4130975-3">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558590305171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Typewriters"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85139131">United States</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572547">Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="psací stroje"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124766&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/instrument/af1799a2-1088-4243-a0d2-8f89e3fc515c">MusicBrainz instrument</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10647443">NARA</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1713551309' |
